Descriptive Statistics
and Probability
Module 1 & Module 2
Practice Questions
• Ten numbered cards are there from 1 to 15, and
two cards a chosen at random such that the sum of
the numbers on both the cards is even. Find the
probability that the chosen cards are odd-
numbered.
• If a family has two children, what is the conditional
probability that both are girls if there is atleast one
girl?
In my town, it's rainy one third of the days. Given that it is rainy, there
will be heavy traffic with probability 12, and given that it is not rainy,
there will be heavy traffic with probability 14. If it's rainy and there is
heavy traffic, I arrive late for work with probability 12. On the other
hand, the probability of being late is reduced to 18 if it is not rainy and
there is no heavy traffic. In other situations (rainy and no traffic, not rainy
and traffic) the probability of being late is 0.25. You pick a random day.
[Link] is the probability that it's not raining and there is heavy traffic and
I am not late?
[Link] is the probability that I am late?
[Link] that I arrived late at work, what is the probability that it rained
that day?
A box contains three coins: two regular coins and one
fake two-headed coin (P(H)=1),
•You pick a coin at random and toss it. What is the
probability that it lands heads up?
•You pick a coin at random and toss it, and get heads.
What is the probability that it is the two-headed coin?
Here is another variation of the family-with-two-
children problem. A family has two children. We ask
the father, "Do you have at least one daughter named
Lilia?" He replies, "Yes!" What is the probability that
both children are girls? In other words, we want to
find the probability that both children are girls, given
that the family has at least one daughter named Lilia.
Here you can assume that if a child is a girl, her name
will be Lilia with probability α≪1 independently
from other children's names. If the child is a boy, his
name will not be Lilia.
A dice is rolled. If X = {1, 2, 6}, Y = {2, 4}
and Z = {2, 4, 6} then, find P(X/Y), P(X/Z).
A dice is rolled. If X = {1, 2, 6}, Y = {2, 4}
and Z = {2, 4, 6} then, find P(X/Y), P(X/Z).
A coin is tossed 3 times. Find the conditional
probability P(C/D) where C = Head on first Toss
and D = Tail on second toss
A coin is tossed 3 times. Find the conditional
probability P(C/D) where C = Head on first Toss
and D = Tail on second toss
Evaluate P(X∪Y), if 3P(X) = P(Y) = 2/5
and P(X/Y) = 4/5.
Evaluate P(X∪Y), if 3P(X) = P(Y) = 2/5
and P(X/Y) = 4/5.
If P(A) = 5/8, P(B) = 1/4 and
P(A/B)=3/8. Find P(Ac/ Bc).
If P(A) = 5/8, P(B) = 1/4 and
P(A/B)=3/8. Find P(Ac/ Bc).
In a school there are 100 students out of which 40 are
boys. It is known that out of 40, 20% of boys study in
class 11. What is the probability P(A/B) where
A: student chosen randomly studies in class 11 and
B: the chosen student is a boy.
In a school there are 100 students out of which 40 are
boys. It is known that out of 40, 20% of boys study in
class 11. What is the probability P(A/B) where
A: student chosen randomly studies in class 11 and
B: the chosen student is a boy.
In a class, 30% of the students failed in Physics, 25%
failed in Mathematics and 15% failed in both Physics
and Mathematics. If a student is selected at random
failed in Mathematics, find the probability that he
failed in Physics also.
In a class, 30% of the students failed in Physics, 25%
failed in Mathematics and 15% failed in both Physics
and Mathematics. If a student is selected at random
failed in Mathematics, find the probability that he
failed in Physics also.
The table shows the distribution of Democratic
and Republican U.S. Senators by gender in the
114th Congress as of January 2015.
FEMALE(F) TOTAL
MALE(M)
DEMOCRATS (D) 30 14 44
REPUBLICANS(R) 48 6 54
OTHER (T) 2 0 2
TOTALS 80 20 100
Use this table to determine the following probabilities:
𝑃(𝑀|𝐷) 𝑃(𝐷|𝑀)
𝑃(𝐹|𝑅) 𝑃(𝑅|𝐹)
The table shows highest attained educational
status for a sample of US residents age 25 or
over:
(D) Did
not (H) High (C) (A) (B) (G)
Complete School Some Associate Bachelor Graduate TOTAL
High Graduate College Degree Degree Degree
School
25-44 (R) 95 228 143 81 188 61 796
45-64 (S) 83 256 136 80 150 67 772
65+ (T) 96 191 84 36 80 41 528
Total 274 675 363 197 418 169 2096
Use this table to determine the following probabilities:
𝑃(𝐶|𝑇) 𝑃(𝑆|𝐴) 𝑃(𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑇)
𝑃(𝑅|𝐵) 𝑃(𝐵|𝑅) 𝑃(𝐺|𝑆)
Baye’s Probability
Suppose a factory has machines I, II, and III that
produce iPhones. The factory's record shows that
Machines I, II and III produce, respectively, 2%, 1%,
and 3% defective iPhones. Out of the total
production, machines I, II, and III produce,
respectively, 35%, 25% and 40% of all iPhones. An
iPhone is selected at random from the factory.
(a) What is probability that the iPhone selected is
defective?
(b) Given that the iPhone is defective, what is the
conditional probability that it was produced by
machine III?
In a multiple choice test, a student either knows the
answer to a question or she/he will randomly guess it.
If each question has m possible answers and the
student knows the answer to a question with
probability p, what is the probability that the student
actually knows the answer to a question, given that
he/she answers correctly?
Moments
• Moments about origin
• Moments about mean
Moments about Origin (Raw Moments)
First Four Moments about Origin
First Four Moments about Origin
First Four Moments about Origin
Skewness
Skewness
Skewness
Skewness
Kurtosis
Kurtosis
Kurtosis
Raw moments: Example
Small Data: 1, 2, 3
Raw Moments
•Moments about origin are raw averages of powers of
data.
•They form the foundation for central moments,
which measure spread (variance), skewness, and
kurtosis.
Moments about Mean (Central Moments)
• Raw Moments:
Moments about Mean (Central Moments)
• Raw Moments:
• Central Moments:
Moments about Mean (Central Moments)
&
Moments about Mean (Central Moments)
• Small data: 1, 2, 3
We calculated raw moments earlier –
Moments about Mean (Central Moments)
• Small data: 1, 2, 3
We calculated raw moments earlier –
Moments about Mean (Central Moments)
Binomial Distribution
Binomial Distribution
Coefficients of Measures of Shape
=
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Poisson Distribution
Negative Binomial Distribution:
Negative Binomial Distribution:
Negative Binomial Distribution:
Cumulative Distribution Function
(CDF)
X∼B(n, p)
Where ⌊x⌋ = greatest integer ≤ x
x P(X=x) F(x)=P(X≤x)
0 0.07776 0.07776
1 0.25920 0.33696
2 0.34560 0.68256
3 0.23040 0.91296
4 0.07680 0.98976
5 0.01024 1.00000
Cumulative Distribution Function
(CDF)
Complement (Survival Function):
There’s a 97% chance of at most 2 defects in 4 tested bulbs.
High chance (63%) the student gets at most 1 correct; very
low chance (1.5%) of getting more than 3 correct by guessing.
There’s a 78% chance of getting at most 2 heads,
and a 65% chance of getting more than 1 head.
Poisson Distribution:
• CDF
• Survival Function: