Probability Distributions and Elementary
Limit Theorems
MAT 352
Project Assignment I
A.A Akinnyi1, J. O. Idika2, M. Y. Lawal3, Q. A. Muritala4
Department of Mathematics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
November 4, 2025
This assignment was carried out independently by the authors from the department of mathematics,
University of Ibadan. Contained in this are the solutions to nine elementary probability based problems
from Sheldon’s Introduction to Probability – particluarly
Pg 85; 1,2,8
Pg 94; 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 13
Pg 97; 1, 17
1
236442 AKINNIYI, Ayomide Access
2
236455 IDIKA, Jideofor Ogbonnaya
3
236458 LAWAL, Marufah Yetunde
4
236461 MURITALA, Quadri Adesina
Project Assignment I
Problem 1. A box contains 3 marbles: 1 Red, 1 Green and 1 Blue. Consider an experiment that consist of
taking 1 marble from the box and then replacing it in the box and drawing a second marble from the box.
Describe the sample space. Repeat when the second marble is dawn without replacing the first marble.
Answer.
Let the event of picking a red marble be 𝑅,
Let the event of picking a green marble be 𝐺, and
Let the event of picking a blue marble be 𝐵
• (with replacement) Sample Space, Ω1 = {𝑅𝑅, 𝑅𝐺, 𝑅𝐵, 𝐺𝑅, 𝐺𝐺, 𝐺𝐵, 𝐵𝑅, 𝐵𝐺, 𝐵𝐵}
• (without replacement) Sample Space, Ω2 = {𝑅𝐺, 𝑅𝐵, 𝐺𝑅, 𝐺𝐵, 𝐵𝑅, 𝐵𝐺}
Problem 2. In an experiment, die is rolled continually until a 6 appears, at which point the experiment
stops. Which is the sample space of this experiment. Let 𝐸𝑛 denote the event that 𝑛 balls are necessary to
𝑐
∞
complete the experiment. What point of the sample space are contained in 𝐸𝑛 ? What is (⋃ 𝐸𝑛 ) ?
1
Answer.
Let the event of having a six at the 𝑖𝑡ℎ toss be 𝐴𝑖 , thus
Sample Space, Ω = {𝐴𝑖 ∶ 𝑖 ∈ ℕ}
Events where 𝑛 toss is be necessary is equivalent to events were we need atleast 𝑛 toss. Therefore
𝐸𝑛 = {𝐴𝑖 ∶ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑖} 𝑛∈ℕ
Equivalently,
𝐸𝑛𝑐 = {𝐴𝑖 ∶ 𝑖 < 𝑛} 𝑛∈ℕ
• It is obvious from our definition of 𝐸𝑛 that it contains all events 𝐴𝑖 , for which 𝑛 ≤ 𝑖, of the sample
space.
• 𝑐
∞ ∞
(⋃ 𝐸𝑛 ) = ⋂ 𝐸𝑛𝑐
1 1
Now observe the following inclusion 𝐸1𝑐 ⊂ 𝐸2𝑐 ⊂ … ⊂ 𝐸𝑖𝑐 ⊂ 𝐸𝑖+1
𝑐
⊂ …, therefore
∞
⋂ 𝐸𝑛𝑐 = 𝐸1𝑐 = {𝐴𝑖 ∶ 𝑖 < 1} = ∅
1
Since 𝑖 ∈ ℕ
Problem 3. Suppose that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive events for which 𝑃 (𝐴) = 0.3 and 𝑃 (𝐵) = 0.5.
What is the probability that;
(a) either 𝐴 or 𝐵 occurs?
(b) 𝐴 occurs but 𝐵 does not?
(c) both 𝐴 and 𝐵 occur?
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Project Assignment I
Answer.
(a) Since 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive events
𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴) + 𝑃 (𝐵)
= 0.3 + 0.5
= 0.8
(b) Let 𝑆 be the sample space, then
𝑃 (𝐴) = 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝑆)
= 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐵𝑐 ))
= 𝑃 ((𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ))
= 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) + 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ) (since the events are mutually exclusive)
Therefore, we have deduced that
𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ) = 𝑃 (𝐴) − 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
= 𝑃 (𝐴) − 0
= 0.3
(c) Since 𝐴 and 𝐵 are mutually exclusive
𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0
Problem 4 - 7. Prove the following relations:
(4) 𝐸𝐹 ⊂ 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹
(5) if 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐹 , then 𝐹 𝑐 ⊂ 𝐸 𝑐
(6) 𝐹 = 𝐹 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 𝐸 𝑐 and 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 = 𝐸 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(7) (⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹 = ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 and (⋂ 𝐸𝑖 ) ⋃ 𝐹 = ⋂ (𝐸𝑖 ∪ 𝐹 )
1 1 1 1
Answer.
(4) We shall first show that 𝐸𝐹 ⊂ 𝐸
𝑥 ∈ 𝐸𝐹 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹
⟹ 𝑥∈𝐸
Thus 𝐸𝐹 ⊂ 𝐸. Now we show that 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹
𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 (Since it is must certainly in one of them)
⟹ 𝑥∈𝐸∪𝐹
Thus 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 and so 𝐸𝐹 ⊂ 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 .
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Project Assignment I
(5) Let 𝑆 be the sample space (or Universal Set). if 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐹 , we shall show that 𝐹 𝑐 ⊂ 𝐸 𝑐
𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 𝑐 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐹
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐸 (Since, from 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐹 , if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 ≡ if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐹 then 𝑥 ∉ 𝐸)
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸𝑐
Hence, 𝐹 𝑐 ⊂ 𝐸 𝑐
(6) • It follows from distributivity of ∩ over ∪ that
𝐹 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 𝐸 𝑐 = 𝐹 (𝐸 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 ) = 𝐹 𝑆 = 𝐹 (where S is the sample space)
• Similary
𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 = 𝐸 ∪ 𝑆𝐹 (𝑆 is the sample space)
= 𝐸 ∪ (𝐸 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 )𝐹
= 𝐸 ∪ (𝐸𝐹 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹 ) (distributivity of ∩ over ∪)
= (𝐸 ∪ 𝐸𝐹 ) ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹 (associativity of ∪)
= 𝐸 ∪ 𝐸𝑐𝐹 (since 𝐸𝐹 ⊂ 𝐸)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
(7) (⋂ 𝐸𝑖 ) ⋃ 𝐹 = ⋂ (𝐸𝑖 ∪ 𝐹 ) We first show that (⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹 = ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 .
1 1 1 1
∞ ∞
𝑥 ∈ (⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 and ∈ 𝐹
1 1
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸𝑖 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 for some 𝑖
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 for some 𝑖
∞
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹
1
∞ ∞
Thus, (⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹 ⊂ ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 . Conversely,
1 1
∞
𝑥 ∈ ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 𝑖 𝐹 for some 𝑖
1
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸𝑖 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 for some 𝑖
∞
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 and ∈ 𝐹
1
∞
⟹ 𝑥 ∈ ( ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹
1
∞ ∞
Thus, ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 ⊂ (⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹 . Combining the inclusions, we have,
1 1
∞ ∞
⋃ 𝐸𝑖 𝐹 = ( ⋃ 𝐸𝑖 ) 𝐹
1 1
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Project Assignment I
Problem 8. Let 𝐸, 𝐹 , and 𝐺 be three events. Find expressions for the events so that, of 𝐸, 𝐹 , and 𝐺,
(a) Only 𝐸 occurs;
(b) both 𝐸 and 𝐺, but not 𝐹 , occur;
(c) at least one of the events occur;
(d) atleast two of the events occur;
(e) all three events occur;
(f) none of the events occurs;
(g) at most one of the events occurs;
(h) at most two of the events occur;
(i) Exactly two of the events occur;
(j) at most three of the events occur.
Answer.
(a) 𝐸𝐹 𝑐 𝐺𝑐
(b) 𝐸𝐹 𝑐 𝐺
(c) 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 ∪ 𝐺
(d) 𝐸𝐹 ∪ 𝐹 𝐺 ∪ 𝐸𝐺
(e) 𝐸𝐹 𝐺
(f) 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹 𝑐 𝐺𝑐
(g) 𝐸𝐹 𝑐 𝐺𝑐 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹 𝐺𝑐 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹 𝑐 𝐺
(h) (𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 ∪ 𝐺) ∖ (𝐸𝐹 𝐺)
(i) 𝐸𝐹 𝐺𝑐 ∪ 𝐸𝐹 𝑐 𝐺 ∪ 𝐸 𝑐 𝐹 𝐺
(j) 𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 ∪ 𝐺
Problem 9. Show that the probability that exactly one of the events 𝐸 or 𝐹 occurs equals 𝑃 (𝐸) + 𝑃 (𝐹 ) −
2𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 ).
Answer.
This probability is given by
𝑃 ((𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 𝑐 ) ∪ (𝐸 𝑐 ∩ 𝐹 )) = 𝑃 ((𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 ) ∖ (𝐸𝐹 ))
= 𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝐹 ) − 𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 )
= 𝑃 (𝐸) + 𝑃 (𝐹 ) − 𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 ) − 𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 )
= 𝑃 (𝐸) + 𝑃 (𝐹 ) − 2𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 )
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Project Assignment I
Problem 10. Prove that 𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 𝑐 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸) − 𝑃 (𝐸𝐹 ).
Answer.
Let 𝑆 be the sample space, then
𝑃 (𝐸) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑆)
= 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ (𝐹 ∪ 𝐹 𝑐 ))
= 𝑃 ((𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 ) ∪ (𝐹 ∩ 𝐹 𝑐 ))
= 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 ) + 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 𝑐 ) (since the events are mutually exclusive)
Therefore,
𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 𝑐 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸) − 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝐹 )
Problem 11. A Cafeteria offers a three-course meal consisting of an entree, a starch, and a dessert. The
possible choices are given in the following table:
Course Choices
Entree Chicken or Roasted Beef
Starch Pasta or Rice or Potatoes
Dessert Ice-Cream or Jello or Apple Pie or a Peach
A person is to choose one course from each category;
(a) How many outcomes are in the sample space?
(b) Let 𝐴 be the event that ice cream is chosen. How many outcomes are in 𝐴?
(c) Let 𝐵 be the event that chicken is chosen. How many outcomes are in 𝐵?
(d) List all the outcomes in the event 𝐴𝐵.
(e) Let C be the event that rice is chosen. How many outcomes are in 𝐶?
(f) List all the outcomes in the event 𝐴𝐵𝐶.
Answer.
(a) 2 × 3 × 4 = 24
(b) 2 × 3 = 6
(c) 3 × 4 = 12
(d) (Chicken, Pasta, Ice cream), (Chicken, Rice, Ice cream), (Chicken, Potatoes, Ice cream)
(e) 2 × 4 = 8
(f) (Chicken, Rice, Ice cream)
Problem 12. Five balls are randomly chosen, without replacement, from an urn that contains 5 Red, 6
White, and 7 Blue balls. Find the probability that at least one ball of each color is green.
Answer.
This probability is zero since there are no green balls in the urn.
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