ME301 Metrology and

Instrumentation
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Introduction
• Block diagram of a conventional Sensor –

Electrical/Non-
electrical input
Sensor Amplifier Filter A/D Converter DAQ

• In some cases, the sensor is integrated with

the pre-processing units to get the electrical
outputs. Such sensors are called integrated
sensors.
• Smart sensors have clubbed together the pre-
processing units along with a decision-making
unit/functionality. For example: discarding
signals not within the desired frequency band,
auto-calibration
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Definition of Smart Sensors
• A sensor having a data processing unit with automatic calibration/automatic
compensation function in which the sensor detects and discards abnormal
values.
• It incorporates an algorithm which performs logical functions (arithmetic
computation using some microprocessor) and has a memory function.
• In some cases, these sensors are coupled to other sensors, adapt to changes
in environmental conditions and have a discrimination function

➢ Can we call a Digital Multimeter a Smart Sensor?

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Parts of a Smart Sensors

• Logical Function – Basic operations like adder/subtractor are performed. This

requires a microprocessor to perform the logical function
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
Traditional Vs Smart Systems

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Smart Materials in Sensors - Features
• The mechanical properties of materials have been vastly studied
• In this course we study the coupling of materials with other
properties such as electrical, magnetic properties etc.
• What is a Smart Material?
• It comes under the category of functional materials
• Energy transformation takes place in smart materials
• Thermal – electric – magnetic – sound – mechanical
• Analogous to biological systems
• Adaptive – example – variable stiffness/other properties
• Cellularity – functions even after breaking into smaller units
• Functions as both sensing unit and actuator
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Smart Materials in Sensors (contd..)
• Smart sensors are easily embeddable
• Conveniently positioned inside the
laminar composites to give different
information related to stress, strain,
temperature etc.

Source: aneliukstis, R., Mironovs, D. Smart Composite

Structures with Embedded Sensors for Load and
Damage Monitoring – A Review. Mech Compos
Mater 57, 131–152 (2021).
[Link]

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

Why do we need Smart Sensors and Actuators?
• To get a real-time response
• Exploit functional properties
• Better embeddability
• Minimal effect on structural
properties
• Low weight
• Minimal power consumption
• Compact system
• Better reliability

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Smart Materials as Sensors
Smart Material
• Can modify geometric • Can act as sensors
and mechanical but not as actuators
properties • It is generally open
• Act as both sensors and loop
actuator Active Passive • Example – optical
• Example – fibre sensors
Piezoelectric, SMA,
Electrorheological fluid,
Magnetostrictive
material

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Piezoelectric Material
(Direct effect)
(Indirect effect)
- Change in shape
• Examples of Piezoelectric material – Sugar crystals, Rochelle Salt, Quartz, and
topaz (natural)
• Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is an example of a
polymeric piezoelectric material.
• Lithium silicate (Li2Si2O5 ) and barium titanate silicate
(Ba2 TiSi O6 ) are examples of glass-ceramic piezoelectric
materials.

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)

One way Two way

• Examples of SMA – Nickel-Titanium Alloys

• Copper Zinc Aluminium Alloy
• Iron Manganese Silicone alloy
• Copper Aluminium Nickel alloy

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Electro/Magneto-Rheological Fluids

• Examples of ERF –
• Starch based solution
• Silica based solution
• Inorganic oxide materials:
Some metallic oxides and
ceramic materials
• Graphene oxide-based
• MRFs are made by dispersing
magnetic particles in a
nonmagnetic carrier fluid.
• Silicone oil with Fe
nanoparticle suspension
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Magnetostrictive materials

• These are ferromagnetic materials

that change dimensions in the
magnetic field and vice versa
• Example - Isotropic ferromagnetic
materials (include iron, copper,
nickel, gold, and aluminium) -
Terfenol-D, Galfenol, Alfenol,
Cobalt ferrite, or Metglas 2605SC

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Applications of Smart Materials

Application as Shock
absorbers
*Source: Zhu, W., Jiang, M., Yang, F. et al. Modeling of a hexapod piezo-actuated positioning platform. Multibody Syst Dyn 61,
19–42 (2024). [Link]
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Applications of Smart Materials (contd..)

Store energy for charging low-power electronic devices

*Source: Xu B and Li Y (2019) Force Analysis and Energy Harvesting for Innovative Multi-functional Shoes. Front. Mater. 6:221.
doi: 10.3389/fmats.2019.00221
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Applications of Smart Materials (contd..)

Application as biomimetic micro-robotic systems

*Source: Zhu, W., Jiang, M., Yang, F. et al. Modeling of a hexapod piezo-actuated positioning platform. Multibody Syst Dyn 61,
19–42 (2024). [Link]
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
Smart Material for Sensing and Actuation

This does not come under the

category of smart material

Actuators
(Reverse Effect)

Sensors
(Direct Effect)
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Smart Materials as Actuators
• Ferroelectrics Perovskites, Piezoceramics – respond to the electric field
by a change in shape
• Terfenol – D, Amorphous Metalliic
Glass – respond to magnetic field by
change of shape
• Electro/Magnetorheological fluid –
respond to electric/magnetic field by
change of viscosity

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Comparison of Smart with Traditional Sensors
Drive Device Displacement Accuracy Torque/Force Response

Air Pressure

Oil Pressure

Electricity
Accuracy is Very fast
very high response

Smart Material
Small
Displacements
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
Physical Comparison of Smart Sensors

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

Piezoelectric Actuation - Application

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators
• Piezoelectric material has a perovskite
structure – not single oxide but ternary
oxide
• These materials have a tetragonal Ba
symmetry which can create a dipole
moment nozzle Ti
• Example – Barium Titanate (𝐵𝑎𝑇𝑖𝑂3 ) 𝐎𝟐

• Perovskite Structure is stable by a very

small margin
• Similar properties are observed in Lead Zirconate Titanate, Lithium Niobium,
Lead Niobium etc which is more significant than natural piezoelectric
materials like Rochelle salt or quartz – the voltage generation is much more
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Piezoelectric Actuator – 3 axis
• Assume two surface electrodes to give polarization with piezoelectric material
in centre
• Three different electric fields
can be obtained depending on
the axis of the connection
• Defining the stress-strain
relationship of piezoelectric
material (constitutive equation)
𝒙 = 𝑺𝑬 𝑿 + 𝒅𝑬 Reverse Effect
𝑫 = 𝒅𝑿 + 𝜺𝑿 𝑬 Direct Effect

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Constitutive Equation for Piezoelectric Material
• Defining the stress-strain relationship of piezoelectric material (constitutive
equation)
𝒙 = 𝑺𝑬 𝑿 + 𝒅𝑬 Reverse Effect
𝑫 = 𝒅𝑿 + 𝜺𝑿 𝑬 Direct Effect
x = Strain
N
X = Stress
m2
D = Electric diaplacement Charge per unit area
m2
S = Compliance
N
E = Electric field intensity Voltage per thickness
F
ε = Permitivity ( )
m
C m 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑘𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
d = piezolecetric constant(
piezolecetric constant() =) =
N V 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Piezoelectric Actuator Fabrication
• Begin with having fine powders of metal
oxides – For example to make PZT you need
Lead Oxide (PbO), Zirconium Oxide (ZrO2 )
and Titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) powders
• Mix them in fixed proportions
• Use some binders
• Form it into desirable shapes by using mould
or so
• Heat the mixture for a specific time and
temperature (650 to 800 Celsius) and apply
pressure to retain shape u s e !
• Allow it to cool and then apply the electrode y fo r
• Polarize the moulded part using a DC electric Re ad
field Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
 Piezoelectric Actuator Fabrication
• Comparing Piezoelectric constant for different piezoelectric actuators –

BaTiO3 PZT PbNb2 O6 LiNbO3 PbTiO3

d (𝑝𝐶𝑁 −1 ) 79 220 11 0.85 7.4

• PZT shows the best performance with maximum piezoelectric coupling

• Curie temperature for PZT (220 to 300 Celsius) is inferior compared to Li
family (600 to 1200 Celsius)

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Magnetostrictive Materials
Applying magnetic field Mechanical deformation Reverse effect (Actuation)

Mechanical Force Change in magnetic field Direct effect (Sensing)

• Effect of mechanical deformation was observed in 1842 by James Prescott

Joule in ferromagnetic material with the application of magnetism
• What is magnetostriction?
It is a change in the size of the system due to domain migration and
reorientation under the applied magnetic field

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Magnetostrictive materials (contd..)
• All ferromagnetic materials show the property of magnetostriction, however
at different temperatures
• A ferromagnetic material that is initially compressed state will show a larger
effect of magnetostriction.

Dysprosium Iron Alloy

Terbium Iron Alloy

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

 Magnetostrictive materials (contd..)
• The most widely used Magnetostrictive material is Terfenol –D developed by
Clark in 1975
(Terbium – Iron (Fe) – Naval Ordinance Laboratory – Dysprosium)
• Terfenol D looks shiny like metal and possesses very high energy density –
highly explosive in nature
• It has high Magnetostrictive force and low modulus of elasticity

Terfenol D Rod Terfenol D Laminates

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK
Magnetostrictive materials (contd..)

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK

Constitutive Equations - Magnetostriction

Dr Mervin Joe Thomas, Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NITK