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Biological Classification

There were huge numbers of birds, land animals, aquatic animals, worms, insects, plants, etc.
Many scientists contributed their life in classifying different species into their own respective
groups, which were based on their habituate, nutrition and etc. But it was not successful as there
were lots of species which were left behind.

Biological classification helps in studying, wide variety of organisms and interrelationship

among different groups. This biological classification system increase as more species are found
and classified.

Biological Classification Definition

Biological classification is the method of grouping organisms into different organs based on their
genus and species. The science, which deals with describing, classifying and naming the
organism, is known as taxonomy. In the year 1750 a famous botanist Carl Von Linne, developed
the method of binomial nomenclature. The term “binomial nomenclature” is derived from the
Latin word meaning “scientific name”.

Biological Classification System

The main reason behind the binomial nomenclature is to group and identify different types of
species, which were present on the planet earth. There were around 1 to 2 million types of plants,
animals and other 3 to 10 million organisms, which were unidentified, such as bacteria, virus,
birds, insects, etc.

Later Linnaeus classified the different organisms based on their structure and discovered the
term called Binomial Nomenclature. It is the method of naming the organisms by their genus and
followed by their species. Linnaeus classified two kingdoms of classifications:
1. Kingdom Plantae
2. Kingdom Animalia.
But this was not successful, as it could not distinguish between –
  Eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
 Unicellular and multicellular.

 Photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic.

Biological Classification Chart

Biological classification helps in studying, wide variety of organisms and interrelationship

among different groups. This biological classification system increase as more species are found
and classified.

In the year 1969 a scientist named R.H. Whittaker divided organisms into five kingdoms –

1. Monera.
2. Protista.
3. Fungi.
4. Plantae.
5. Animalia.

The classification of organisms was based on cell structure, organization, mode of nutrition,
reproduction and phylogenetic relationship.
Biological Classification Kingdoms

Organism

There are different types of living organisms in our surroundings, which include unicellular,
multi cellular, eukaryotes, prokaryotes,etc. These living creatures are collectively called as
organisms, as their body is made up of one or more organs and organelles to carry out various
processes in the entire life. The term organism is derived from the Greek word meaning an organ
of sense.

Organism Definition

There are many definitions for the term organism.

It can be defined as a living individual, who develops their ability to perform its
function independently and can react to the stimulus, reproduce, grow, metabolizing nutrients,
etc. Based on their habituate and other characteristics, they are scientifically divided into five
kingdoms, which include – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Organism Examples

Organisms can be unicellular or multicellular- virus, bacterium, fungus, plants and animals.

Model Organism

A model organism can be defined as an organism or a species, which are mainly used for
research purpose. There are only few selected model organism, such as drosophila, rats, mice
from animal kingdom and Escherichia coli from prokaryotes, etc. These animals can be used to
study the development, physiology and behavior. The model organisms have similar functions
when compared to other organisms.
Some special features of model organism.
 They are easy to grow and require minimum space.
 Require lesser nutrients for growth.
  They have very short generation time.

 Resembles to others organisms.

Rat - A model organism

Organism Classification

The organism is classified into five kingdoms, which includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia.

Kingdom Monera:

They are very small and single celled prokaryotic organism, which includes species such as
bacteria, archae bacteria, cyanobacteria and Mycoplasma.

Kingdom monera- e.g.: bacteria.

Kingdom Protista:

They are single-celled, eukaryotes and mainly aquatic, which includes species such as diatoms,
golden algae, euglena, amoeba, paramecium, etc.
Kingdom Protista- e.g.: paramecium.

Kingdom Fungi:

They are long, thread like structure, eukaryotic organisms, which includes species like lichens,
mycorrhiza, aspergillums, mushroom, etc.
Kingdom fungi- e.g.: mushroom.
Kingdom Plantae:

They are eukaryotic, multicellular, phototrophic organisms with the presence of well developed
bounded organelles. It includes all types of plants.
Kingdom Plantae- e.g.: Mango tree

Kingdom Animalia:

They are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms with the presence of well developed
bounded organelles. It includes all types of animals.
Kingdom Animalia: The tiger
Unicellular Organism

An organism, which are composed of only one single cell and are smaller and simpler when
compared to multicellular organism. Unicellular organisms carry out all specialized functions
within a single cell. The lives, which cannot be seen with the naked eye, are unicellular
organisms.
Examples of unicellular organism.
A unicellular organism includes amoeba, bacteria and some forms of algae such as diatoms.

Examples of unicellular organism- Amoeba

Multicellular Organism

An organism, which are composed of many cells and are much larger and more
complex compared to unicellular organism.
Multicellular organisms have differentiated cells, which performs specialized functions.
For example: Nerve cells, blood cells, muscle cells, all performs different functions.
Most of the lives, which can be seen with the naked eye, are multicellular organisms.
Examples of unicellular organism.
A multi cellular organisms includes all organisms from Plantae and Animalia kingdoms - fish,
man, tiger, horse, cow, dog, sheep, snakes, whale, elephant, mango tree, rose, plant, herbs, etc.
Examples of multicellular organism.
Kingdom Monera

Kingdom Monera - All the organisms of this kingdom are prokaryotes. Complex structure was
the basis of classification of organisms, many centuries ago. According to R.H. Whittaker's five
kingdom classification all the bacteria were placed under the Kingdom Monera.

Monera are considered as the most primitive group of organisms. They include various types of
bacteria and blue-green algae.

Monerans are most abundant of all organisms, due to their versatility of their [Link] is
estimated that a single drop of water contains 50 billion bacteria.

Definition Kingdom Monera

The Kingdom Monera includes organisms that are single-celled known as bacteria. The
microorganisms in Kingdom Monera are considered as the most ancient living forms on
earth. The kingdom is divided into two groups Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. All the
organisms of this kingdom are prokaryotes. These cells do not have nuclear membrane, the
chromosome is a single and circular, they also lack membrane bound cellular organelles. This
kingdom includes bacteria, cyanobacteria, mycoplasma etc. They are unicellular organisms and
do not have specific mode of nutrition. They can be either aerobic or [Link] organisms
have cell wall which is made up of peptidoglycans. The cell organelles are not membrane bound.
Cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria are absent. Reproduction is by spore
formation and binary fission.

Kingdom Monera Characteristics

General characteristics of the kingdom Monera are as follows:

 They are primitive organisms.

 All organisms of the kingdom are prokaryotes.

 They are present in both living and non-living environment.

 They can survive in harsh and extreme climatic conditions like in hot springs, acidic soils
etc.
 They are unicellular organisms.

 Membrane bound nucleus is absent.

 DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the cytoplasm of the organism,referred as

nucleoid.

 A rigid cell wall is present.

 Membrane bound cellular organelles like mitochondria are absent.

 Habitat - Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice, in deep ocean floor,
in deserts and on or inside the body of plants and animals.

 Nutrition - autotrophs - can prepare their own food, heterotrophs - depend on others for
food, saprophytes - feed on dead and decaying matter, parasitic - live on other host cells
for survival and cause, symbiotic - in mutual relation with other
organisms, commensalism - it is where one organism is benefited and the other is not
affected, mutualism - where both the organisms are benefited.

 Respiration - respiration in these organisms vary, they may be obligate aerobes - the
organisms must have organisms for survival; obligate anaerobes - the organisms cannot
survive in the presence of oxygen; facultative anaerobes - these organisms can survive
with or without oxygen.

 Circulation - is through diffusion.

 Movement - is with the help of flagella.

 Reproduction is mostly asexual, sexual reproduction is also seen. Asexual reproduction is

by binary fission, sexual reproduction is by conjugation, transformation and transduction.
Classification of Kingdom Monera

Kingdom Monera has been classified into two groups - Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.
Archaebacteria are microbes that live in extreme and harsh conditions, they are known as
extremophiles. These bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is made up of different lipids,
and their ribosomes are similar to that of eukaryotes.
Archaebacteria are of three major groups of bacteria based on their habitat i.e., thermophiles,
halophiles and methanogens.

Some extremophiles live in boiling water like geysers of Yellowstone National Park and and in
volcanoes. These are known as 'thermophiles'.
Some extremophiles live in extremely salty water, the salt loving bacteria are known as
'halophiles'.
Some bacteria are present in the guts of ruminants and are responsible for production of methane
gas from their dung. These bacteria are known as 'methanogens'.
Eubacteria are true bacteria. The characteristic feature is the presence of rigid cell wall and if
present a motile flagelllum that aids in [Link] organisms are characterized based on
their nutrition and their shapes.

Classification based on Shape

Bacteria can be classified in four groups based on shape : Spherical or round shaped bacteria are
called cocci, Rod-shaped are bacilli, Comma-shaped bacteria are vibrio and spiral shaped
bacteria are spirilla.
Classification Based on Mode of Nutrition

Based on the mode of nutrition bacteria are broadly classified into Autotrophic and
Heterotrophic.

Autotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which prepare their own food are autotrophic.
(Example Cyanobacteria)

Heterotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which are dependent on other organisms for their food are
heterotrophic.(Example Escherichia coli)
Autotrophic bacteria can be Chemosynthetic or Photosynthetic.
Chemosynthetic bacteria are those which prepare their food with the help of inorganic substrates.
Photosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic bacteria which prepare their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.

Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) - They have chlorophyll similar to plants and hence they are
photosynthetic autotrophs. The marine and terrestrial and they may be unicellular, colonial or
filamentous. The colonies are surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They can also fix atmospheric
nitrogen.
Example: Nostoc and Anaebena.
Chemosynthetic autotrophs - these organisms oxidise substances like nitrites, nitrates, ammonia
etc. The help in recycling substances like nitrogen, sulphur, iron etc.

Heterotrophic bacteria are those which are dependent on other organism either directly or
indirectly for their nutrition. They are most abundant and are important decomposers. Some are
helpful in curdling milk, production of antibiotics, in nitrogen fixation and some are pathogens.
Heterotrophic bacteria can be parasitic and saprophytic. Parasitic bacteria are those which
depend on the host for nutrition and cause harm to the host. Saprophytic bacteria feed on dead
and decaying matter.

Symbiotic - it is a type where the bacteria are in mutual relation with other organisms. Symbiosis
is of two types mutualism and commensalism. Mutualism is where the bacteria and the
other organism are benefited due to the relationship. Commensalism is a relationship where the
bacteria is benefited while the other organism is not affected by the relationship.

Classification based on Gram's staining

Gram's staining is a test on cell walls developed by Hans Christian Gram. This method helps
classifying bacteria into Gram positive bacteria and Gram negative bacteria.

Gram Positive Bacteria - The bacteria's cell wall is made up of protein-sugar complex that takes
on purple color during gram staining.
Gram Negative Bacteria - The gram negative bacteria has an extra layer of lipid on the outside of
the cell wall and appear pink during the Gram staining procedure.

Reproduction in Bacteria
Reproduction in bacteria is mainly by fission. Under unfavourable conditions they reproduce by
spores. Sexually bacteria reproduce by a primitive mode of DNA transfer from one bacterium to
another i.e., by conjugation, transduction or transformation.
Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma are the known to be the smallest living cells. They completely lack cell wall and
can survive without oxygen. Most of the mycoplasma are pathogenic in nature in animals and
plants.

Economic Importance of Bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus and Lactococcus have been used in fermentation process
for thousands of years.
The ability of the bacteria to degrade variety of organic compounds has been used in waste
management processing and biorememdiation.

In pest control, bacteria can be used in the place of pesticides as these pesticides are regarded
environmentally friendly.
Example: Bacillus thuringenesis.
The ability of the bacteria in dividing rapidly and by studies on the bacterial genome, these
bacteria can be bio-engineered for the production of therapeutic proteins like insulin, growth
factors and antibodies, etc.

Kingdom Monera Examples

The Monerans comprises of mostly bacteria. Following are a few well known examples.

Blue-green algae - Cyanobacteria, Cocci shaped bacteria - Streptococcus, Bacilli shaped bacteria
- [Link], Vibrio shaped - Vibrio cholerae (cholera), Spiral shaped bacteria - Treponema pallidum
(syphilis).

Gram positive bacteria - Mycobacterium; Gram negative bacteria - [Link] (coliforms)

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Streptococcus pyogens,
Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, Vibrio cholerae, Bacillus
anthracis, Bacillus cereus.
Kingdom Protista

All single celled organisms are placed under the Kingdom Protista. The term Protista was first
used by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1886. This kingdom forms a link between other kingdoms of
plants, animals and fungi. Protists represent an important step in early evolution. The first
protists evolved probably 1.7 billion years ago. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic in
nature. It is a very large group comprising of at least 16 phyla. Many protists like algae are the
primary producers in the aquatic ecosystem, some protists are responsible for serious human
diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness.

Kingdom Protista Definition

Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. Protists are unicellular, some are
colonial or multicellular, they do not have specialized tissue organization. The simple cellular
organization distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes. The cell body of the protists
contain have a nucleus which is well defined and membrane bound organelles. Some have
flagella or cilia for locomotion. Reproduction in protists is both asexual and sexual. They live in
any environment that contains water.
Characteristics of Kingdom Protista

General characteristics of Kingdom Protista are as follows:

 They are simple eukaryotic organisms.

 Most of the organisms are unicellular, some are colonial and some are multicellular like
algae.

 Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and
plants.

 These organisms are eukaryotic, since they have a membrane bound nucleus and
endomembrane systems.

 They have mitochondria for cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for
photosynthesis.

 Nuclei of protists contain multiple DNA strands, the number of nucleotides are
significantly less than complex eukaryotes.

 Movement is often by flagella or cilia.

 Protists are multicellular organisms, they are not a plant, animal or fungus.

 Respiration - cellular respiration is primarily aerobic process, but some living in mud
below ponds or in digestive tracts of animals ares strict facultative anaerobes.

 Nutrition - they can be both hetreotrophic or autotrophic.

 Flagellates are filter feeding, some protists feed by the process of endocytosis (formation
of food vacuole by engulfing a bacteria and extending their cell membrane).

 Reproduction - some species have complex life cycle involving multiple

organisms. Example: Plasmodium. Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.

 They can reproduce by mitosis and some are capable of meiosis for sexual reproduction.

 They form cysts in adverse conditions.

 Some protists are pathogens of both animals and plants. Example: Plasmodium
falciparum causes malaria in humans.

 Protists are major component of plankton.

Kingdom Protista Classification

Kingdom Protista are categorized into two taxons:

Protozoans - animal-like single-celled organisms.

Algae - plant-like single or multi-celled organisms.

Animal-like Protists - PROTOZOANS

Protists that have resemblance to animals are known as protozoans. They in moist and watery
environments. The characteristics similar to animals are - their ability to move and their inability
to produce their own food (heterotrophs). They differ from animals being unicellular while
animals are multicellular.

Protozoans are classified on the way they move into four categories:
 Sacordinians - move using pseudopod.
 Zooflagellates - move using flagella.

 Ciliaphorans - move using cilia.

 Sporozoans - forms spores.

Phylum Sarcodina - The movement in sarcodinians is by extending lobes of cytoplasm known as

pseudopodia. The pseudopoda is used for movement and feeding. During the formation of the
pseudopodia the cytoplasm streams into the lobe causing the lobe to 'ooze' and grow. Because of
this the peudopodians have a 'blob like appearance. Example: Amoeba, Foraminiferans.
Phylum Mastigophora (Zooflagellata) - These protozoans move with the help of flagella. Most
of them are parasitic. Many flagellates are seen in the intestine of humans, in termites and other
animals, some flagellates are harmful. Example: Trypanosoma gambiense causes sleeping
sickness in cattle and human.

Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates) - Protozoans of this phylum move with hair like structures called
cilia. The cilia stick out of their cells. The movement of cilia is paddle like, it sways back and
forth for movement and fast beating of the cilia causes movement of the organism. The cilia is
also used to sweep food particles into the organism. Example: Paramecium - It is a ciliate
protozoan found in fresh water and ponds. It commonly known as the slipper animal-cule.

Phylum Sporozoa - All members of this phylum are non-motile and parasitic. They forms spores
and hence the name sporozoa. They lack locomotory structures and they are carried in their
hosts by their body fluids. Many sporozoans causes serious diseases in humans. Example:
Plasmodium - this parasite causes malaria in humans.
Plant-like Protists - ALGAE

Plant-like protists have chlorophyll like that in plants. The green substance in their cells enable
them to make food bu photosynthesis. They produce and release oxygen like the plants. It is
believed to be the most supply of oxygen on Earth is from the plant-like protists. The plant-like
protists are the major food source and primary producers for water organisms.

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae) - The green algae include unicellular and multicellular
algae. They are mostly fresh water. Body is sheet-like thallus. They have cell walls made of
cellulose and pectin. Food is reserve starch which is stored in pyrenoids. Example: Spirogyra - it
is a unicellular green alga, it grows as a green thread or filament.

Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae) - Red algae are mostly large and multicellular. They grow in
oceans. The algae 'Nori' and Gelidium are used as food, in parts of Asia. Carragean and agar are
glue-like substances in red-a;gae. Agar is used as a medium used for growing bacteria and other
organisms under laboratory conditions. Agar is also used to make gelatin capsules. and a base for
cosmetics. Carragean is used as a stabilizer and thickener in dairy products. It is also used to give
toothpaste its creamy texture.
Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) - Brown algae are multicellular. They grow on rocks in
shallow water of the sea. Large brown algae are called kelps. Kelps may grow densely in the sea
and form kelp forests. They form important food sources for fish and invertebrates. The brown
algae growing on rocks are known as rockweed. Example of rockweed is Sargassum. Algin is a
substance derived from some algae which is used in making ice cream, lotion and plastics.
Phylum Chrysophyta (Golden algae) - 'Chryso' means 'color of gold'. There are three types of
golden-algae: yellow-green algae, golden brown algae, diatoms. Diatoms are the most abundant
and are found in seawater and freshwater habitats. The shell of diatoms are made of silica. They
are major source of food to may aquatic organisms. The shells of fossil diatoms form thick
deposits on the sea floor known as 'diatomaceous earth'. It is used as water filters, abrasive and to
add sparkling to products such as paint and fingernail polish.

Phylum Pyrrophyta (Fire Algae) - It contains of species of one-celled algae called dinoflagellate
which means 'spinning swimmers'. They store food in the form of starch and oils. The red color
is due to chlorophyll a and c and xanthophylls. These organisms have ability of bioluminescence.
Almost all species like in marine water. Some species causes the 'red tide phenomenon'. The
dinoflagellates causing red tides are known as Gonyaulax, which contain a neurotoxin and are
poisonous to marine fauna.
Fungus-like Protists
Slime Molds - Slime molds are saprophytic protists. They are very bright in appearance. They
live in moist soil, decaying plants and trees. They are single-celled organisms. During favorable
condition they form multicellular aggregations called plasmodium. During unfavorable
conditions, plasmodia differentiate to form fruiting bodies bearing spores at the tip. These spores
posses resistant true walls, which help in survival for a long time during adverse conditions.
These spores disperse by air currents.

Kingdom Protista Examples

Few well known examples are follows:

Green algae - Spirogyra, Ulva, Chlamydomonas, Volvox.
Red algae - Porphyra, Rotalgen.
Brown algae - Laminaria, Nereocystis.
Water molds - Saprolegnia.
Phylum Ciliata - Paramecium, Vorticella.
Phylum Dinoflagellata - Ceratium, Gonyaulax.
Phylum Mastigophora - Trypanosoma, Trichonympha.
Phylum Sarcodina - Amoeba.
Economic Importance of Protists
Protists are useful in the following manners:
Source of food - Some protists like kelps are edible.
Source of commercial products - Marine protists are source of useful substances like algin, agar,
carragean and antiseptics.
Primary producer of aquatic ecosystem - Many protists are primary producers, they play a basic
role in food cahins, providing food and oxygen.
Source of medicines - Sodium laminaria sulphate, Fucoidin, Heparin are algal products used as
blood coagulants. Lyngbya produces an anti-cancer compound.
Source of mineral - Kelps are rich in sodium, potassium, iodine etc, they are good source of
minerals.

Biological research - They are used in biological research, e.g., Chlorella is unicellular, non-
motile alga.
Pathogens - Thhese ar pathogenic organisms and may cause many disease in man and also in
fruits and vegetables it causes late blight potatoes and causes disease in some fishes.
Kingdom Plantae

There are different types of plant species, which are found on planet earth. They are sorted and
classified into a separate kingdom known as Kingdom plantae. This classification is based on
their similarities and differences.

The Kingdom plantae is also called as kingdom Metaphyta. The Kingdom plantae includes all
types of eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic plants found in this biosphere. Most of the
organism in this kingdom is autotrophs, which synthesis their own food with the help of solar
energy. There are very few species, which are both autotrophs and [Link] history of
life on earth and the success of many organisms literally depend on the success of plants.

Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Plantae Definition

The Kingdom plantae can be defined as multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotes, which conduct
photosynthesis. All member of this family comprises of true nucleus and advanced membrane
bound organelles. They are quite different from animals. The Kingdom Plantae contains about
300,000 different species of plants. Among the five kingdoms, Kingdom plantae is a very
important, as they are the source of food for all other living creatures present on planet earth,
which depends on plants to survive.

Kingdom Plantae Characteristics

Below you could see characteristics for kingdom plantae

 Most of the plants are eukaryotic and chlorophyll containing organisms.

 Cell walls of plant cells are comprised of cellulose.

 They have an ability to grow by cell division.

 In life cycle of plant cells, the interchanges occur from the embryos and are supported by
other tissues and self produce.

 Plants have both organs and organ systems.

 They obtain their energy from sun through photosynthesis.

 Plants reproduce both by sexual and asexual.

 Plants develop a self defense mechanism to protect them from being destroyed by
animals, fungi and other plants.

 Organisms within Kingdom Plantae are multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic.

 They lack motility.

Examples of kingdom Plantae

This kingdom includes all types plants like herbs, shrubs, trees, creepers, climbers, aquatic
plants, desert plants, mountain plants, flowering and non flowering plants etc.
Kingdom Plantae Classification

The Kingdom Plantae contains about billion types of plants species and it was very difficult to
identify different types of species. Many biologists contributed in classifying different plants
species in to their separate kingdom.

Based on their classification, plants are divided into the four main groups. These classifications
was based on
 The presence of vascular tissue.
 The absence of vascular tissue.

 The presence of seeds.

 The absence of seeds.

Vascular tissue and the seeds are mainly considered as they play a vital role in:

Vascular tissue helps in transporting substances (water, minerals and sugars) throughout the
plant.
Seeds are structures, which contains an embryo that helps in storing food.

Phyllum Bryophyta

 They are non-vascular land plants, which do not contain any conducting tissues and are
often referred to as bryophytes.
 These plants are small, grow close to the ground and include mosses and liverworts.

 They are very small in structure and are considered as important members of our
ecosystem.

 The reproduction process is carried in their spores. They are non flowering plant and are
found mainly growing on the ground, on other plants and on rocks.

 They play a vital role in preventing soil erosion.

Phylum bryophyta e.g.: Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.

Mosses
Phyllum Pteridophytae

 They are seedless vascular plants, which contain vascular tissues but do not produce
seeds.
 They are involved in transportation of fluids.

 The reproduction process is carried by spores.

Phylum pteridophytae e.g.: horsetails, ferns and club mosses.

Horsetails

Phyllum Angiosperms
  Angiosperms are flowering plants, which develops the seeds within a protective structure.
 The reproduction process is carried by Angiosperm.

 They develop their seeds within an ovary, which itself is embedded in a flower. After the
stage of fertilization, the flower falls and the ovary bulges to become a fruit.

 Angiosperms in the class Dicotyledoneae grows into two seed-leaves (cotyledons).

 An angiosperms leaf consists of a single, branched, main vein, which originates from the
base of the leaf blade. In few plats, it may also consist of four or more main veins
diverging from the same base.

Phylum angiosperms e.g.: trees, shrubs, vines and flowers.

Vines

Phyllum Gymnosperms

 Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants with undeveloped seeds, which are present in an
enclosed structure.
 Monocot begins with a single seed-leaf. The main veins of their leaves are usually
parallel and unbranched.

 Monocot plays an important role in providing us with our primary sources of nutrition,
which includes grains, fruits, etc.
Phylum gymnosperms e.g: palms, carpet lawns, etc.
Palms
Non Flowering Plants

There are billion types of plant species found in this biosphere. After the classification of
different plants species in to their separate kingdom, biologists again sub classified these plant
species into two categories. This classification was based on the plants that produce flowers and
their type of reproduction.

Definition of Non Flowering Plants

Non flowering plants can be defined as those plants, which cannot produce flowers and most of
them reproduce through spores. They are completely different from flowering plants. These
types of plants cannot produce flowers and seeds. Non flowering plants have vascular tissues and
they reproduce by spores.

List of Non Flowering Plants

There are more than 700 types of non-flowering plants present on this biosphere, among them
some famous non flowering plants are ferns and horsetails. Other examples of non flowering
plants are Moses. Liverworts, Cut-leaved Grape Fern, Royal Fern, Cinnamon Fern, Curly-grass
Fern, Bead Fern, Lichens, Conifers, Cycads, Algae, Rosidae, Magnoliidae, Gingko, Hornworts,
Whisk ferns, Club mosses, etc.

Lichens
Types of Non Flowering Plants

There are three types of non flowering plants. These classifications was based on
 The presence of roots.
 The absence of roots.

 Based on their seeds - spore bearing and naked seeds.

Mosses
General Characteristics of Mosses

They belong to the kingdom of Phylum bryophyta.

 They are the simplest plants with the absence of true roots and vascular tissues.
 They have simple stems, leaves and they do not produce flowers, fruits and seeds.

 They reproduce through spores.

 They are small green coloured plants, which prepares their own food.

 They live in damp shady places.

Mosses
Ferns
General Characteristics of Ferns

They belong to the kingdom of Phylum pteridophytae.

 They are the simplest plants with the presence of roots, feathery leaves and underground
stems.
 They have vascular tissues, which helps in the transportation of water, minerals and
sugars throughout the plant.

 They have spore producing organs, which is present at the bottom of the leaves.

 They live in damp shady places.

 There are approximately 12,000 varieties of ferns around the globe.

 They are large green coloured plants, which prepares their own food.

 They reproduce through spores.

Ferns

Gymnosperms
 They are tall evergreen trees with the presence of roots, woody stems and needle shaped
leaves.
  They have vascular tissues, which helps in the transportation of water, minerals and
sugars throughout the plant.

 They contain naked seeds in female cones.

 They reproduce seeds from cones in non-flowering plants.

 They are cone-bearing plants, which resembles to palm trees.

 These trees grow up to 20 feet tall and are found in Mediterranean climates.

Gymnosperms e.g.: hemlock, pine and redwood trees.

Pine tree

Characteristics of Non Flowering Plants

Below you could see non flowering plants characteristics

 These plants do not produce flowers, fruits and seeds.
 Non flowering plants vary in their shape, size and colour.

 They are the first and oldest (about 450 million years ago) plant present on this biosphere.

 They are mainly characterized by spore production, absence of flowers and true roots.

 These plants are simpler compared to those flowering plants.

 They have higher level of adaptability to the environment.

 Reproduction in non flowering plants is asexually by producing spores.

 Gymnosperms are the first nonflowering plants to produce seeds. Gymnosperms started
to produce flowers and fruits after 130 million years ago.
Flowering Plants

A flower is the reproductive organ of all flowering plants. A single flower produces egg and
sperm and the entire process of fertilization in plants occurs inside the flower. A single flower
gives rise to fruit and seeds. In addition to reproduction flower plays a vital role in pollination by
attracting animals, birds and other flies to transfer the pollen grains. According to the history,
flowering plants came into existence about 135 million years ago. In fact, the food, which we
consume every day comes from the flowering plants itself.

Definition of Flowering Plants

Flowering plants can be defined as those plants, which can produce flowers, fruits and seeds.
They are completely different from nonflowering plants. They are also called as angiosperms.
Flowering plants are the largest groups within the plant [Link] are around 260,000
species of flowering plant and about 90% species are identified. This species also includes
aquatic plants, desert plants, land plants, seasonal plants, etc.
Rose - A flowering plant.

Examples of Flowering Plants

Sunflower, tulips, marigold, lily, jasmine, rose, lotus, hibiscus, Petunia, daisy, water lilies,
Orchid, hibiscus etc.
Lotus - An aquatic flowering plant.

Types of Flowering Plants

There are two types of flowering plants. These classifications was based on
 The physical structure of roots, stem and leaves.
 Types of seeds - Monocot and Dicot.

MONOCOTS
General characteristics of monocots.
 They are one seeded plant.
 The leaves of monocotyledons have parallel veins.
  They are herbaceous plants.

 The parts of the flowers of monocotyledons are arranged in threes or more. It may
contain flowers with three petals, flowers with six petals and the stamens also follow this
pattern.

 Monocotyledons make a seed with a seed coat.

Monocot e.g. grass, corn, rice, wheat, etc.

Corn

DICOTS
General characteristics of dicot.

 They are two seeded plant.

 The leaves of dicotyledons have veins in network.

 Dicotyledons seeds also contain an embryonic plant.

  The flowers of dicotyledons have petals and other parts of flower are arranged in four or
five or six. It may contain flowers with four petals, flowers with five petals, flowers have
six petals and the stamens also follow this pattern.

 The seed is protected by a seed coat.

Dicot e.g. trees, sunflower, rose, etc.

Sunflower

Desert Flowering Plants

Deserts are the home to many living things. Plants that grow in a desert have to be adapted to the
dry conditions. They must be able to collect and store water to reduce water loss. Desert plants
look quite different to plant that grow in other places. The desert plant includes bushes, cactii,
saguaro cactus, which have been adapted to survive in the extremely dry [Link] plants
are hard and have a capability to tolerate alkaline soils.
 The bushes plants have waxy leaves to reduce water loss and their leaves have real aroma
to avoid animals from feeding their leaves.
 Cactii and saguaro cactus have a tiny thorns on the surface of their leaves, which avoid
animals from feeding their leaves.

 The desert plants stem is green, where the process of photosynthesis is carried on.

 The desert plants roots are long, which helps in absorbing stored underground water.
  Cactii and saguaro cactus can grow up to 15metres height and can store about 800 litres
of water.

Desert flowering plants e.g. Desert Agave, cactii, saguaro cactus, dragon tree, desert rose, etc.
Cactus

Hardy Flowering Plants

Hardy flowering plants can be defined as seasonal plants or a plant, which is adapted to the
temperature, climate and to certain area. Hardy flowering plants have an ability to tolerate
extreme cold, heat, wind, floods, and other geographic location, etc.
Different types of hardy flowering plants.

Tender: The tender plants are those plants, which cannot survive in extreme cold temperature
and finely the plants die. These include plants like: annual herbs, corn, cucumber, eggplant,
peanut, pumpkin, sweet potato, tomato, watermelon.
Tomato

Half-hardy: The term half-hardy plants are used in cultivation, to describe bedding plants, which
are sown in heat in winter or early spring and planted outside after all danger of frost has passed.
These plants require green house and warm temperature. They include plants like Busy lizzie,
petunias, etc.

Busy lizzie
Hardy: The hardy plants are those plants, which can survive even in extreme cold temperature.
Hence they can be sown outside and they do not require green house. These include popular
plants such as love in the mist, nasturtiums, etc.
Nasturtiums

Winter-hardy plants: The winter-hardy plants are those plants, which grow only during winter.
These include plants like: cabbage, broccoli, carrot, tulips, freesia, etc.

Tulips
Hanging Flowering Plants

The hanging flowering plants can be defined as small evergreen shrubs, which can be grown in
baskets or in hanging pots. These types of flowering plants can also be planted on fences and
patios. They are traditional plants, which are planted in between the month of April to early June.
These plants are habituated to more heat and plenty of water. There are plenty of hanging
flowering plants, which includes: moss rose, lantana, fuchsia, verbena, sweet alyssum, etc.

Hanging flowering plants

Characteristics of Flowering Plants

These plants produce flowers, fruits and seeds.

 They are characterized by a root system and a shoot system.
 They are the main producers.

 Reproduction in flowering plants is by sexually.

 Flowering plants make up nearly 90 percent of all plant species found in this biosphere.

 They are present from 130 million years on this biosphere.

 The three largest families of flowering plants are the sunflower, orchid and pea families.
Kingdom Fungi

The organisms in kingdom fungi include mushrooms, yeasts, molds, rusts, smuts, puffballs,
truffles, morels, and molds. More than 70,000 species of fungi have been identified. The fungi
constitute and independent group to that of plants and animals. They live everywhere in air, in
water, on land, in soil, and on or in plants and animals. Some fungi are microscopic and other
extend for more than a thousand acres. Mycology is a discipline of biology which deals with the
study of fungi. Fungi appear like plants but are closely related to animals. Fungi are not capable
of producing their own food, so they get their nourishment from other sources. Fungi are in a
wide variety of sizes and forms and have great economic importance.

Kingdom Fungi Definition

Fungi show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, they
obtain their nutrients by absorption. The cell wall of fungi are mostly made up of carbohydrate
chitin, while the cell wall in plants is made of cellulose. The carbohydrates stored in fungi is in
the form of glycogen. The 'fruit' body of fungus is only seen, while the living body of the fungus
is a mycelium, it is made of tiny filaments called hyphae. The mycelium is hidden., Nutrition in
fungi is by absorbing nutrients from the organic material in which they live. Fungi do not have
stomachs, they digest their food before it pass through the cell wall into the hyphae. The hyphae
secrets enzymes and acids that break down the organic material into simple compounds.

Kingdom Fungi Characteristics

General characteristics of fungi are as follows:

 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.

 They are non-vascular organisms.

 They reproduce by means of spores.

 Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be
produced.

 They are typically non-motile.

 Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.

 The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic threads
called hyphae.

 The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically the fungi cell wall are
composed of chitin.

 Fungi are heterotrophic organisms.

 They fungi digest the food first and then ingest the food, to accomplish this the fungi
produce exoenzymes.

 Fungi store their food as starch.

 Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.

 The nuclei of the fungi is very small.

 During mitosis the nuclear envelope is not dissolved.

 Nutrition in fungi - they are saprophytes, or parasites or symbionts.

 Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Sexual state is referred to as
teleomorph, asexual state is referred to as anamorph.
Kingdom Fungi Classification

Based on the spore case in which the spores are produced fungi are classified into four divisions.

Division Ascomycota: Sac Fungi

The sac-fungi produce spores in small cup-shaped sacs called asci, hence the name ascomycota.
The mature sac fungi spores are known as ascospores, they are released at the tip of the ascus
breaks open. Yeast is the most common one-celled fungi. Yeast reproduces through asexual
process called budding. The buds form at the side of the parent cell, they pinch-off and grow into
new yeast cell which is identical to the parent cell. Examples of sac-fungi are morels, truffles,
cup fungi and powdery mildews. Example: Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora.

Division Basidiomycota: Club Fungi

Basidiomycota includes the mushrooms, puff-balls, smuts, rusts and toadstools. The spores are
borne on a club-shaped spore case called basidium. In mushrooms the basidia are lined at the
gills under the cap. Huge numbers of spores are produced by the club fungi. In fact, an average
sized mushroom produces over 16 billion spores. These spores rarely germinate or mature.
Example: Agaricus(mushroom), Ustilago(smut), and Puccinia(rust fungus).
Division Zygomycota: Zygote forming Fungi
These fungi are usually found on cheese, bread, and other decaying food. They are zygote
forming fungi, hence the name zygomycota. The spores are produced in round-shaped case
called sporangium. The grayish fuzz seen on bread and decaying food is actually mass of mature
sporangia mold. Under the microscope they are seen as pinheads. When the sporangium breaks
open hundreds of spores are released. Example: Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo.
Division Deuteromycota: Imperfect Fungi
These organisms are known as imperfect fungi because they lack sexual reproduction. They
reproduce by asexual spores known as conidia. Most of the fungi causes diseases to humans like
ringworm, athlete's foot. Economically important imperfect fungi are Penicillium and
Aspergillus. Other examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

Kingdom Fungi Examples

Some of the examples of kingdom fungi are as follows:

Sac-fungi : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).
Zygote-forming fungi : Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo.
Club fungi: Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).
Imperfect fungi: Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

Members of the Kingdom Fungi

Mycorrhizae - More than 90% of the plants are symbionts of mycorrhizae. Myco means fungus
and rhiza means root. Mycorrhizae are of two types ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae.

Ectomycorrhizae - These are fungus forms sheath outside the root.

Endomycorrhizae - They are also known as vesicular-arbuscular-mycorrhizae (VAM). Fungus

does not form sheath around the roots.
Lichens - They are symbionts. They have a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a alga.
Neither of the organisms can survive on their own.

Economic Importance of Fungi

Fungi are important in a variety of ways:
Recycling - Together with bacteria the fungi form a major role in recycling the dead and decayed
matter.
Food - Many mushrooms are used as food by humans. Mushrooms species are edible and
are cultured in many parts of the world for sale.
Medicines - Penicillin antibiotic is derived from a common fungi Penicillium. Many other fungi
also produces antibiotics, which are used to control diseases in humans and animals.
Bio-control Agents - Fungi are used to parasitise insects which help control pests. Spores of fungi
are sprayed on crops, this method is cheaper and environmentally friendly.
Plant and Animal Diseases - Many fungi live on and in plants and animals causing diseases.
They also co-exist harmoniously with plants and animals.
Food spoilage - Fungi play a major role in recycling organic material. Fungal damage is
responsible for large losses of stored food usually when the food contains moisture.
Kingdom Animalia

The major group of animals are classified under the Kingdom Animalia, also known as Metazoa.
This kingdom does not contain prokaryotes. All the members of this kingdom are multicellular,
eukaryotes. They are heterotrophs, they depend on other organisms directly or indirectly for
food. Most of the animals ingest food and digest in the internal cavity. Most of the organisms are
motile which means they can move independently and spontaneously.

There are around 9 to 10 million species of animals, and about 800,000 species are identified.
Fossil records of animals were found in the era of the Cambrian explosion, about 540 million
years ago. Animals are divided into various sub-groups, biologists have identified about 36 phyla
within the animal kingdom including birds, mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians etc.

Kingdom Animalia Definition

The word 'animal' is derived from the Latin word animalis which means 'having breath'. The
Kingdom Animalia is characterized by eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms. They are
multicellular and lack cell wall. They depend directly or indirectly of plants for their food. Food
is ingested and digested in their internal cavity and food reserves are stored as glycogen or fat.
Nutrition is holozoic, i.e., by ingestion of food. Animals follow a definite growth pattern, the
adults have a definite shape and size. Higher forms of animals exhibit well developed sensory
and neuromotor mechanism. Most of the organisms are capable of locomotion. Reproduction is
by copulation of male and female which is followed by development in embryonic stages.

Kingdom Animalia Characteristics

General characteristics of the Kingdom Animalia are as follows:

 Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.
 They have multiple cells with mitochondria and they depend on other organisms for food.

 Habitat - Most of the animals inhabit seas, fewer are seen in fresh water and even fewer
on land.

 There are around 9 to 10 million animal species that inhabit the earth. Only 800,000
species are identified.

 Biologists recognize 36 phyla in the animals kingdom.

 Size - The sizes of animals ranges from a few celled organism like the mesozoans to
animals weighing many tons like the blue whale.

 Animal bodies - Bodies of animals are made of cells organized into tissues which
perform specific functions. in most animals tissue are organized into complex organs,
which form organ systems.

 Cell structure - The animal cell contains organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi
complex, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, vacuoles, centrioles,
cytoskeleton.

 Animals are made up of many organ systems, that aids in performing specific functions
that are necessary for the survival of the organism.

 Organ systems are skeletal system, muscular system, digestive system, respiratory
system, circulatory system, excretory system, reproductive system, immune system and
the endocrine system.
  Body symmetry - Most of the animals are bilaterally symmetrical, while primitive
animals are asymmetrical and cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical.

 Locomotion - Most animals have the ability to move, they show rapid movement when
compared to plants and other organisms.

 Respiration - It is a gaseous exchange of taking in oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide.
This process takes place in organs of respiration like the lungs, gills, book gills and book
lungs and some animals skin is also used for respiration.

 Digestion - Animals ingest food, and digestion takes place in the internal cavity like the
digestive system in animals, in primitive animals vacuoles are for digestion.

 Nervous system - Sensory mechanism and the coordination of the organ systems is
carried on by the nervous system. In animals the nervous system comprises of nerve
ganglions, or brain, spinal cords and nerves.

 Circulatory system - The distribution of nutrients, exchange of gases and removal of

wastes takes place in the circulatory system. This system comprises of the heart, blood
vessels and the blood.

 Excretory system - Removal of wastes from kidneys.

 Skeletal system - support and protection is provided by the skeletal system.

 Reproductive system - Most animals reproduce sexually, by the fusion of haploid cells
like the eggs and the sperms.

 Glands of the endocrine system help in control and coordination of the body system.

Kingdom Animalia Classification

Kingdom Animalia has approximately 36 sub-divisions known as 'phyla'. Each phyla share
particular properties structurally and functionally which together separate it from other phyla.
Below are the most common phyla classified under traditional biological methodology.
Phylum Porifera - They are primitive organisms, most of them are salt-water sponges. They do
not have organs or nerve cells or muscle cells. Approximately, 8,000 species exist today.
Example: Sycon, Euspongia, Spongilla.

Phylum Coelentrata (Cnidaria) - This group is composed of jelly-fish and other lower aquatic
animals. Approximately, 15,000 species exist [Link]: Aurelia, Adamsia.

Phylum Platyhelminthes - This group consists of flat worms. They inhabit both marine and fresh
water habitats and they are mostly endoparasites found in animals. Example: Taenia, Fascicola.

Phylum Aschelmeinthes - It is a group of round worms, most of them are parasites. This phylum
consists of about 80,000 parasitic worms.

Phylum Annelida - They are present in aquatic, terrestrial and are free-living or parasitic in
nature. This phylum comprises of segmented worms. Example: Earthworm, Leech etc.

Phylum Arthropoda - This is the largest phylum which consists of insects. There are over 1
million species of insects existing today. Example: Locusts, Butterfly, Scorpion, Prawn.

Phylum Mollusca - It is the second largest phylum. They are terrestrial and aquatic. Example:
Pila, Octopus.

Phylum Echinodermata - This consists of sea stars and sea urchins. There are about 6,000
species. Example: Asteria, Ophiura.

Phylum Chordata - Animals of this phylum have a characteristic feature of presence of

notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits. Within this phylum
advanced group called vertebrates which include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Kingdom Animalia Examples

Some of the well known examples of Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Porifera - Sycon, Euspongia, Spongilla.
Phylum Coelentrata - Aurelia, Adamsia.
Phylum Platyhelminthes - Taenia (Tapeworm), Fascicola (Liver fluke).
Phylum Aschelminthes - Ascaris (Round worm), Wuchereria (Filaria worm), Ancylostoma (hook
worm).
Phylum Annelida - Nereis, Pheretima (earthworm), Hirudinaria (blood sucking leech).

Phylum Arthropoda - Apis (honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (lac insect), Anopheles,
Culex and Aedes (mosquiotes), Locusta (locust), Limulus (king crab).

Phylum Mollusca - Pila (Apple snail), Octopus (devil fish), Pinctada (pearl oyster), Aplysia (sea-
hare), Sepia (cuttle-fish), Dentalium (Tusk Shell), Chaetopleura (Chiton).

Phylum Echinodermata - Ascarias (star fish), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily),
Cucumaria (sea cucumber), Ophiura (brittle star).

Phylum Chordata - Balanoglossus, Ascidia. All fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Animal Kingdom Classification

Animals are characterized being multicellular and eukaryotic. Classification of animals is about
organizing organisms into groups. Members of a group have shared characteristic, that is
common to all members of that group and it is this character that defines the group.

There are about 1.2 million species of animals identified and there are almost 9-10 million
species of animals on earth. This huge population of animals creates importance for the need
of classification. Classification helps in assigning a systematic position to newly described
species.
Characteristics of Animal Kingdom Classification

Basis of Classification
There is a difference in structure and form of different animals, there are a few fundamental
characteristics that are common to various organisms. The features are

 Arrangement of cells,
 Body symmetry,

 Nature of coelom,
  Patterns of digestive, circulatory and reproductive systems,

 Arrangement of cells in germ layers,

 Segmentation,

 Notochord. These are the features that forms basis for animal classification.

Levels of Organization
All the organisms of the Animal kingdom are multicellular but they do not exhibit the same
pattern if organization of cells.

The patterns of cellular organization seen in animals are:

 Cellular Level of Organization - In these animals the cells are arranged in the form
of loose cell aggregates. This kind of cellular organization is seen in [Link]:
Sponges.

 Tissue Level of Organization - Cells of the animals show division of activities among
themselves. Cells performing the same function are arranged as tissues.
Example: Coelentrates.

 Organ Level of Organization - Tissues of the animals performing the similar function are
grouped to form organs. Each organs is specialized for specific function. Example:
Platyhelminthes.

 Organ system Level of Organization - In animals where organs have associated to form
functional systems where each system is concerned with a specific physiological function
are said to exhibit organ system level of organisation. Example: Annelids, Arthropods,
Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates.
Patterns of Organ Systems
Organs systems in different groups of animals exhibit various patterns of complexities.

 Digestive System - There are two patterns of digestive system incomplete and complete
digestive system.

Incomplete digestive system - This pattern of digestive has only one opening to the outside of the
body, i.e., a single opening serves as both mouth and anus. Example: Platyhelminthes.

Complete digestive system - In this pattern there are two opening to the outside of the body, the
mouth and the anus. Example: Arthropods, Chordates, etc.
 Circulatory System - Circulatory system may be of two types - open type and closed type.

Open type - In open type circulatory system the blood is pumped out of the heart and the cells
and tissues are diectly bathed in it.
Closed type - In this type of circulatory system the blood is circulated through a series of vessels
of varying diameters - the arteries, veins and capillaries.

Body Symmetry
Animals can be categorized on the basis of their body symmetry. The arrangement of body parts
around a central point or line determines the symmetry.

 Asymmetrical - some animals cannot be divided into two equal halves along any plane
passing through the center of the organism. Asymmetry is the complete absence of
symmetry. Example: Sponges.

 Radial Symmetry - Animals are said to exhibit radial symmetry, when any plane passing
through the central axis of the body divides the organism into two identical halves.
Example: Coelentrates, ctenophores and echinoderms.

 Bilateral Symmetry - Animals where body can be divided into identical right and left
halves are said to be bilaterally symmetrical. Example: Annelids, Arthropods,etc.
Body Wall
Body wall of animals are arranged in two or three embryonic layers. Accordingly animals are
diplobalstic or triploblastic.

 Diploblastic Animals - Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers
are known as diploblastic animals. Diploblastic animals have an external ectoderm and an
internal endoderm. The middle mesoglea is the middle undifferentiated layer present
between outer ectoderm and middle mesoderm. Example: Coelentrates.

 Triploblastic Animals - Triploblastic animals are those, whose cells are arranged in three
germinal layers, the outer ectoderm, inner endoderm and the third germinal layer
mesoderm which is in between outer ectoderm and the endoderm. Example:
Platyhelminthes to Chordates.
Nature of Coelom
The presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall and the gut wall is important
characteristic for classification. Coelom is the body cavity that is lined by the mesoderm. There
are three types of animals based on the type of coelom - coelomates, pseudocoelomates or
acoelomates.

 Acoelomates - Animals in which the body cavity is absent are known as acoelomates.
Example: Platyhelminthes.

 Pseudocoelomates - Animals in which the body cavity is not lined by the mesoderm,
instead the mesoderm is present in scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and the
endoderm are known as the pseudocoelomates. Example: Aschelminthes.
  Coelomates - Animals possessing the body cavity which is lined by the mesoderm are
known as coelomates. Example: Annelids, Mollusca, Arthropods, Echinoderms,
chordates.

Segmentation
In some animals, body is segmented externally and internally, with serial repittion of at least
some organs. This phenomenon is known as metamerism and the segmented body pattern is
known as metameric segmentation. Example: Earthworm.

Notochord
In some animals during embryonic development, a mesodermally derived rod-like structure is
formed on the dorsal side, this is known as notochord. Animals with notochord are known as
chordates and the animals which do not form notochord are known as non-chordates. Example:
Porifera to Echinoderms.

Animal Kingdom Classification System

There are many different types of animals which are similar and different to each other in many
aspects. Members of a particular group of animal share a particular characteristic that is common
to all the members of the group. This is the feature that defines the group.
Biologists arrange organisms into groups on the basis of traits which they share with other
animals and the genetic relationship with each other. This orderly form of classification of
animals is the basis of taxonomy. Modern taxonomy is based on physical characteristics and
genetic characteristics. Systematics is the field of study that focuses on evolutionary relationships
between living organisms.

Carlous Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist was the inventor of modern scientific
classification. He designed his system of classification so that each animal and plant he described
had only one name and this name would not be shard with any other organism.

The system most scientist use put each living thing into seven groups or taxons. They are
organized from most general to most specific category. These categories in the hierarchical
system are from higher and most inclusive to lower to more specific are kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus and species.

Kingdom is the highest primary division in which all objects are placed. All animals are part of
the Animal Kingdom.

Phylum - Each kingdom is divided into smaller units called phyla. Example, chordates are a
phylum with members possessing the nerve cord.
Class - The chordates are further divided into classes such as Mammalia, Birds, Reptilia,
Amphibians. Members of each class have a characteristics that they share with the members of
the same class but are not found in members of other classes.

Family - Classes are further divided into families. Families contain more than one genus.
Genus - Families are sub-divided into genera. Animals that share the same genus are very similar
and probably evolved from the same common ancestor.
Species - Species is the most fundamental and contains single type of animal.
Animal Kingdom Classification Chart

Animals are classified into two principal groups invertebrates (with-out backbone) and
vertebrates (with backbone). Backbone is the observable feature which defines whether the
animal is vertebrate or invertebrate.

Sponges, star fish, Obelia, worms, spiders, insects are the sub-groups of the invertebrate group,
they do not have a backbone.

Fishes, birds, frogs, snakes and mammals have a backbone and are the sub-group of the
vertebrate group.
Invertebrates

Invertebrates are the most abundant organisms on earth. They occupy almost all habitats, they
can be found crawling, flying, swimming or floating. Invertebrates are the animals without
backbone. These animals do not have internal skeleton made of bone. They play a vital role in
the earth's ecosystem.

About 99 per cent of the known organisms are invertebrates. Out of the planets estimated 15-30
million species about 90% of the animals are invertebrates. These come in may shapes and sizes
and provide services that are vital for our survival.

The most common vertebrates include sponges, annelids, echinoderms, molluscs and arthropods.
Arthropods includes insects, crustaceans and arachnids.

The earliest fossil of an invertebrates dates back towards the late Precambriam period, over 600
million years back.

What are Invertebrates?

Invertebrates are the animals that do not have a backbone or the vertebral [Link]
without the notochord are invertebrates. Most of the animals are invertebrates. The term
invertebrates is a prefixed form of a Latin derived word 'Vertebra'. 'Vertebra' means joint in
general, specifically it means 'the joint of the spinal column of the vertebrate'. It id coupled with
the prefix "in" meaning not or without, which conveys the meaning 'those that lack veterbrae'.

Invertebrates are the most diverse group having about 12 million live species. Most of the
animals on earth are invertebrates. They are cold-blooded animals; their body temperature
depends on the temperature of the atmosphere.

Characteristics of Invertebrates

General characteristics of invertebrates are as follows:

 The main characteristic that separates invertebrates from other organisms is the absence
of the spinal column and backbone.
 They are multicelluar organisms, they completely lack cell walls.

 They are devoid hard bony endoskeleton.

 Due to the lack of complex skeletal systems, some invertebrates tend to be slow and
small in nature.

 Due to the lack of the backbone and complex nervous system the invertebrates cannot
occupy mulitple environments, though they are found in the harshest of the
environments.

 Invertebrates live all over the world in various habitats.

 Body is divided into three parts - head, thorax and the abdomen.

 They do not have lungs for respiration.

 Respiration is through skin.

 Some invertebrate groups possess a hard, chitinous exoskeleton.

 Most of them have tissues, that are specific organization of cells.

 Most of them reproduce sexually by the fusion of the male and female gametes.

 Few invertebrates like the sponges are sedentary, but most of the organisms are motile.
 Most invertebrates are organized with symmetric body organization.

 They can not make their own food, are heterotrophs.

List of Invertebrates

Invertebrates are the most diverse organisms present on earth. Almost 95% of the animal
populations are of the invertebrates. Based on the International Union regarding Conservation of
Nature at the time of 2009 more than 1.3 million invertebrates were identified. Invertebrates
make up around 75% of the recognized species on Planet.

The actual number of invertebrates is unknown, there are several predictions that there may be
tens of millions of invertebrates, majority being the insects. New species of invertebrates are
being discovered regularly, another worrying fact is that there is insufficient information about
these organisms, the invertebrates might be going extinct and the scientists would never know
that they even existed.

Below are lists of invertebrates -

Crustaceans, Centipedes, Ants, Wasps, Spiders, Locusts, Honey bees, Termites, Cockroach,
Grasshoppers, Crickets, Stick insect, Mantis, Crabs, Songes, Star fish, Unio, Leeches,
Earthworms, etc.

Invertebrates Classification

Some invertebrate phyla are:

Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

 Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges.
 Habitat - They are mostly marine, few are found in fresh water.

 Body symmetry - mostly are assymetrical animals, no definite shape to the body.

 Level of organization - These are primitive animals, multicellular with cellular grade of
organization.

 Motility - Adult sponges are sessile, that is they need a substratum to attach themselves to
a surface and do not move.

 Mode of Nutrition - Due to the sessile nature, sponges are filter feeders.
 Digestion - Digestion is intracellular.

 Skeleton - The body of sponges is supported by a skeleton made of spicules or spongin

fibres.

 Reproduction - Sexes are not separate, they are hermaphrodites. Hermaphroditism -

condition where eggs and sperms are produced by the same [Link]
reproduces asexually by fragmentation and sexually by formation of gametes.

 Fertilization - Fertilization is internal.

 Development - Indirect development, having a larval stage which is morphologically

distinct from the adult.

 Water transport or Canal system - Sponges have water transport system. Water enters
through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central cavity known as spongocoel.
From the spongocoel water goes out through the osculum. This water system aids in food
gathering, respiratory exchange and removal of wastes.

 Choanocytes - These are collar cells, they line the spongocoel and the canals.

 Examples: Sycon, Euspongia, Spongilla.

Phylum Cnidaria (Coelentrata)
 Habitat - They are aquatic mostly marine animals, they are sessile or free-swimming.
 Level of organization - They exhibit tissue level of organization.

 Body wall - They are diploblastic animals, body wall is made of 2 layers, outer ectoderm
and inner endoderm.

 Body symmetry - They are radially symmetrical.

 Digestive system - They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening
hypostome, which serves as both the mouth and the anus.

 Digestion is extracellular and intracellular.

 Specialized cells known as the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes which contain the stinging
capsules or nematocytes are present on the tentacles and the body. Cnidoblasts are used
for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.

 Some cindarians like corals have skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.

 Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa. The polyp is a sessile
form ann cylindrical in shape like the Hydra, Adamsia etc. The medusae form is umbrella
shaped and free-swimming forms like Aurelia or jelly-fish.

 Metagenesis - Cnidarians which exhibit both polyp and medusae form are exhibit
alteration of generation, this is known as metagenesis. Poplyps produce medusae
asexually and medusae form the polyps sexually.

 Locomotion - The body contains nerve network that allows movement of tentacles and
body.

 Examples: Aurelia (medusa), Adamsia (polyp).

Phylum Ctenophora :
 Ctenophores are commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.
 Habitat - They are exclusively marine animals.

 Body symmetry - They are radially symmetrical.

 Body wall - They are diploblastic organisms.

 Level of organization - Ctenophores exhibit tissue level of organization.

 Digestion is both extracellular and intercellular.

 Locomotion - The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, these help in
locomotion.

 Bioluminescence is a property of living organism to emit light is well-marked in

ctenophores.

 Reproduction - Sexes are not separate, reproduction is by sexual means only.

 Fertilization is external with indirect development.

 Example: Pleurobrachia

Phylum Platyhelminthes
 They are commonly called as flatworms, they have dorso-ventrally flattened body.
 Habit - They are mostly endoparasites found in animals and human beings.

 Habitat - Fresh-water and salt water; terrestrial.

 Body symmetry - Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical.

 Body wall - They are triploblastic animals.

 Coelomic cavity - They are acoelomate animals

 Level of organization - Organ level of organization.

  Digestive system - In flatworms digestive system is incomplete, that is the digestive
cavity has a single opening.

 Parasitic flatworms possess hooks and suckers to hold on to the body of the host. Some
forms absorb nutrition directly from the host, through their body surface.

 Osmoregulation and excretion is carried out by specialized cells cells flame cells.

 Sexes are not separate.

 Fertilization is internal and development is indirect, having many larval stages.

 Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.

 Examples: Taenia (tapeworm), Fasciola (liver fluke).

Phylum Aschelminthes (Nematoda)

 The body of worms of aschelminthes in cross-section is circular, hence the name round
worms.
 Habitat - They may be free-living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and
animals.

 Level of organization - Round worms have organ-system level of organization.

 Body symmetry - They are bilaterally symmetrical.

 Body wall - They are triploblastic animals.

 Coelomic cavity - They are pseudocoelomate animals.

 Digestive system - This is the first phylum to have a complete digestive system, with a
well developed muscular pharynx.

 Excretory system - An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through
the excretory pore.

 They are dioecious - the sexes are separate i.e., males and females are distinct. Often
females are longer than the males.

 Fertilization is internal.

 Development may be direct - the young ones resemble the adult, or indirect.

 Examples: Ascaris (round worm), Wuchereria (filaria worm), Ancylostoma (hookworm).

Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)
 Habitat - They may be aquatic either marine or fresh water; or terrestrial; free-living and
sometimes parasitic.
 Level of organization - They exhibit organ-system level of body organization and
bilateral symmetry.

 Body wall - They are triploblastic.

 Coelom - They are coelomate animals.

 Body is metamerically segmented. The body surface is distinctly marked out into
segments of metameres and hence, the phylum name Annelida.

 Locomotion - They possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in locomotion.

 Aquatic annelids posses lateral appendages, parapodia which help in swimming.

 Circulatory system is closed.

 Osmoregulation and excretion is by Nephridia.

 Neural system - It consists of paired ganglia connected by lateral nerves to a double

ventral nerve cord.

 Nereis is dioecious, but earthworm and leeches are monoecious.

 Reproduction is sexual.

 Examples: Nereis, Pheretima (earthworm), and Hirudinaria (blood sucking leech)

Phylum Arthropoda
 It is the largest phylum of the Animalia.
 It includes insects, spiders, crayfish, etc.

 Level of organization - They have organ-system level of organization.

 Body symmetry - They are bilaterally symmetrical.

 Body wall - triploblastic, segmented. Coelomate animals.

 The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton.

 Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.

 Jointed appendages - arthros - jointes, poda - appendages, hence the name is derived
from this characteristic.

 All the arthropods have jointed appendages which give arthropods a wide range of
controlled motions.

 Respiration is through organs like gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.

 Circulatory system - It is of open [Link] organs are present, antennae, eyes

(compound and simple), statocysts or balance organs are present.

 Excretion - It takes place through malphigian tubules.

 Mostly they are dioceious. Fertilization is usually internal.

 They are oviparous animals.

 Development may be direct or indirect.

 Examples: Honey bee, Silkworm, Lac insect, Mosquitoes, Locust, Crab

Phylum Mollusca
 It is the second largest phylum.
 Habitat - Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic; they may be marine or fresh water.

 Level of organization - They have an organ-system level of organization.

 Body symmetry - Bilaterally symmetrical.

 Body wall - triploblastic. Coelomate animals.

 Body is covered by a calcareous shell.

 Body is unsegmented, they have a distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump.

 The radula - Mouth of the molluscs contain tongue-like organ called radula, which has
many rows of teeth, which is used to scrape food.

 Mantle - It is a fold of skin that surrounds the body organs.

 It is a soft and spongy layer of skin that forms a mantle over the visceral hump.

 The space between the hump and the mantle is called the mantle cavity.
  Feather like gills are present in this cavity.

 These gills have respiratory and excretory in functions. Anterior head region has sensory
tentacles.

 Example: Pila, Octopus, Pearl oyster, Loligo, Sea-hare, Chiton.

Phylum Echinodermata
 All the members are marine, live mainly on the ocean floor.
 These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles, and hence the name
echinodermata (spiny bodied).

 Level of organization - Organ-system level of organization.

 Body symmetry - The adults are radially symmetrical, but the larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.

 Body wall - Triploblastic. Coelomate animals.

 Digestive system is complete.

 The mouth is present on the ventral side and anus on the dorsal side.

 The most distinctive feature is the water vascular system.

  This helps in locomotion, capture and transport of food and respiration.

 Excretory system is absent.

 Sexes are separate.

 Reproduction is by sexual means.

 Fertilization is usually external.

 Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.

 Example: Star fish, Sea urchin, Brittle star.

Examples of Invertebrates

Invetebrates include all animals that do not belong the phylum chordata. Common examples
include clams, snails, spiders, cockroach, worms, star fish, octopus.
Porifera - Sponges, Sycon (scypha), Spongilla (fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (bath
sponge).
Cnidaria - Aurelia, Adamis, Hydra, Sea anemones, Physalia (Portugese man-of-war), Pennatula
(sea-pen), Gorgonia (sea-fan), Meandrina (brain coral).
Ctenophora - Pleurobranchia and Ctenophora.
Platyhelminthes - Taenia (tapeworm), Fasciola (liver fluke).
Aschelminthes - Ascaris (round worm), Wuchereria (filaria worm), Ancylostoma (hookworm).
Annelida - Nereis, Pheretima (earthworm) and Hirudinaria (blood sucking leech).
Arthropoda - Apis (honey bee), Bombyx (silkworm), Laccifer (lac insect); Mosquitoes -
Anopheles, Culex and Aedes; Locusta (locust) ; Limulus (king crab).
Mollusca - Chaetopleura (Chiton), Loligo (squid), Pila (apple snail), Pinctada (pearl oyster),
Sepia (cuttlefish), Loligo (squid), Octopus (devil fish), Aplysia (sea hare), Dentalium (tusk shell).
Echinodermata - Asterias (star fish), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (sea
cucumber), Ophiura (brittle star).

Vertebrates

Vertebrates are the most organized organisms on Earth. They belong to the sub-phylum
Vertebrata. They are not the most numerous group of animals, they are the most advanced group
of [Link] characteristics that makes vertebrates special are the presence of the spinal cords,
vertebrae and notochords.

Most vertebrates have a very well developed nervous system. The vertebrates also have muscles
and skeletons which help them move around efficiently and perform complex moves.
Â Vertebrates include the majority of the Phylum Chordata, having about 64,000 species
described. Vertebrates make about 4% of all described species.Â

Vertebrates have a long history on earth - more than 500 million years, from the Cambrian era
until date. First Vertebrates have said to be appeared around the Cambrian period of the
Paleozoic era about 525 million years ago, they are said to be adapted to feeding algae in
shallow waters and moving around from place to place.Â

Vertebrates Definition

Vertebrate are the animals belonging to the sub-phylum Vertebrata. They belong to the Phylum
Chordata. The characteristics of phylum chordata is the presence of notochord, a dorsal hollow
nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits. The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess
notochord during the embryonic period. The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony
vertebral column in the adult. All vertebrate are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
Special characteristics of vertebrates other than the vertebral column are, they have a muscular
heart which is two, three or four chambered. For excretion they have kidneys and appendages
that are paired which may be fins or limbs.

Vertebrate Characteristics

General characteristics of the sub-phylum Vertebrata are as follows:

 Vertebrates have a well developed brain.

 Brain is set inside a bony box, known as cranium.

 Notochord is present in all chordates during sometime of development, it is formed on

the dorsal side of the primitive gut in the early embryo stage.

 Most vertebrates possess guts with a non-terminal anus.

 The mouth cavity and the oesophagus is connected by the pharyngeal gill slits to a
muscular tube pharynx, which opens to the exterior.
  They possess a dorsal hollow nerve tube at some stage of their life.

 Possess a dorsal cartilaginous nerve rod known as the notochord.

 At some stage of their life possess gill slits in the pharyngeal region.

 Have partially open circulatory system.

 Possess two pairs of appendages.

 The endoskeleton is made of cartilage or bone.

 The first vertebrates were jawless fishes with single caudal fin.

 The advancement of vertebrates with a hinged jaw which opened new food options and
jawed fishes became the dominant creatures in the sea.

 All vertebrates have a heart and closed circulatory system.

 Reproduction is normally sexual.

 Feed on variety of organic materials.

 Unisexual animals, have one pair of gonads.

Vertebrate Classification
Classes of Vertebrates
Class - Cyclostomata

The living members of this class are all ectoparasites on some fishes. They have a elongated
body. They bear 6-15 pairs of gills through which they respire. The mouth of the cyclostomes is
sucking circular mouth without jaws. They do not have body scales and paired fins. The
vertebral column and the cranium is cartilaginous. Circulation is closed type. These are marines
organisms but they migrate to fresh water for spawning. After metamorphosis their larvae
returns to the ocean. Example: Petromyzon (Lamprey), and Myxine (Hagfish).
Class - Chondrichthyes

These organisms are marine and have streamlined body. The endoskeleton is cartilaginous.
Mouth is located ventrally and the notochord is present throughout life. The gills are separate and
are not covered by the operculum. The skin contains minute placoid scales. The placoid scales
are modified as teeth and the jaws are powerful. They are predaceous animals. Air bladder is
absent in these animals, hence, they have to swim constantly to avoid shrinking. Example:
Scolidon, Pristis, Trygon.
Class - Osteichthyes

This class includes animals that are both marine and fresh water fishes with bony endoskeleton.
Their body is streamlined. Mouth is terminal in position. The gills are covered with operculum
on each side and are in four [Link] skin is covered by ctenoid/cycloid scales. Air bladder is
present, it regulates buoyancy. Two-chambered heart is present, with one auricle and one
ventricle. They are poikilothermic animals. The sexes are separate, fertilization takes place
externally. Most of them are oviparous animals and development is direct, with no larval stages.
Example: Hippocampus, Clarias.

Class - Amphibia

The name Amphibia indicates - from Greek, Amphi meaning dual and bios meaning life.
Ampibians can live both in aquatic and terrestrial habitats. These animals have two pairs of
limbs. Body is divisible into head and trunk and tail is present in some animals. The skin of these
animals are scaleless and moist. The eyes have eyelids, and the ears are represented by a
tympanum. Cloaca is a opening to the exterior, it is a common chamber for the alimentary canal,
urinary and reproductive [Link], lungs and skin aids in respiration. Heart is three-
chambered. They are cold-blooded animals. Sexes are separate, fertilization is external. They are
oviparous animals and development is indirect. Example: Toad, frog, salamander.
Class - Reptilia

In Latin repere or reptum means to creep or crawl, hence, the class name refers to locomotion
that is of creeping or crawling mode.
These animals are mostly terrestrial and their body is covered dry and cornified skin, epidermal
scales or scutes. External ear opening is absent, tympanum represents the ear. Limbs, if present
are of two pairs. Usually heart is three-chambered, but is four chambered in crocodiles. They are
poilkilothermic animals. Some animals like the snake and the lizards shed their skin. Sexes are
separate, internal fertilization takes place. They are oviparous and development is direct.

Example: Turtle, Chameleon, crocodile.

Class - Aves

Most of the members can fly, except the flightless birds. The characteristic feature of birds is the
presence of feathers. The forelimbs are modified as wings. The hind limbs are modified for
walking, swimming or clasping and generally have scales. The skin is dry and does not have
glands, except a oil gland at the base of the tail. Endoskeleton is bony, and the bones are hollow
with air cavities known as pneumatic bones. Heart is four-chambered completely. They are
warm-blooded animals. Lungs are the organs of respiration. Sexes are separate, fertilization is
internal. They are oviparous animals and development is direct. Example: Crow, Pigeon, Parrot
etc.
Class - Mammalia

Mammals are present in almost all habitats - polar ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, and
[Link] unique characteristic of the class mammalia is the presence of milk
producing glands (mammary glands), by which the young ones are nourished. The limbs are of
two pairs. The skin is covered with hairs. External ear 'pinna' is present. Heart is four-chambered
and they are homeothermic animals. Respiration is through lungs. Sexes are separate and
fertilization is internal. They viviparous animals, with direct development. Example: Kangaroo,
Tiger, Lion, Platypus etc.

List of Vertebrates

The vertebrates are a very diverse group of animals ranging from Hag-fish to Man. There are not
the most numerous group of animals. Vertebrates are interesting because we are intimately
familiar with them, or species Homo sapiens is included within the sub-phylum
vertebrata. Vertebrates are easy to find as we co-exist with them and often aware of their
presence in our environment.

Below are the list of few very familiar vertebrates: deer, fish, dogs, cats, birds, snakes, lizards,
kangaroo, bears, foxes, wolves, bat, monkeys, eagles, penguins etc.

Examples of Vertebrates

Below are the examples of vertebrates:

Pisces: Sharks, trouts, eels, tunas, seahorse, pirahnas, salmons, etc.
Amphibians: Salamanders, frogs, toad, newts, caecilians, etc.
Reptiles: Snakes, lizards, tortoise, turtles, crocodiles, gharials, alligators, etc.
Birds: Penguins, emu, eagles, ostrich, parrot, crow, pigeon, ducks, owls, kites, robins,
woodpeckers, albatross etc.
Mammals: Kangaroo, echidna, platypus, bats, mice, tigers, moles, dolphins, whales, deer,
gorrilas, lemurs, rabbits, wolves, lions, leopards, jackals, etc.

Animal Tissue

In multicellular organisms, a group of similar cells with intercellular substances perform specific
function, such an aggregation of cells is called tissue. Organs are functional group of many
tissues. The study of tissue is known as histology. The study of tissues in connection with
diseases of tissues is known as histopathology.

The word tissue is derived from a Latin word which means 'weave'. Cells that form tissues
are woven together to form tissues. Tissues are sometimes held together by a sticky substance
that coat the cells.

Animal Tissue Definition

Any distinct type of material animal cells are made of, which consists specialized cells and
cellular products, which show inflammation reaction to any infection or injury are known as
tissues. In animal organs are made up of four basic types of tissues epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscle tissue and nerve tissue. These tissues have distinctive features and specific
functions which combine to form functioning organs.

Four Types of Animal Tissue

Animal tissues are of four basic types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular and Neural tissues.
Multiple tissues compose organs and body structures. Generally animals are said to made up of
these basic four type of tissues, but the presence of these tissues may differ, depending on the
type of organism. The origin of the cells of a type of tissues may differ in development stages in
different classification of animals.
Animal Tissues and their Function

The structure of the cell varies according to its function. The tissues are different and are
classified into four types:

 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue

 Muscular tissue and

 Neural tissue.

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue is commonly referred to as epithelium. The epithelial tissue forms the outer
covering or lining for some part of the body. It is composed of closely packed cells, arranged in
flat sheets. Epithelial tissues forms the surface of the skin, lines many cavities of the body and
covers the internal organs.

There are two types of epithelial tissues - Simple Epithelium and Compound Epithelium.

Simple epithelium is composed of single layer of cells. It functions as a lining of cavities of

body, ducts and tubes.
Compound epithelium or stratified epithelium is made of two or more cell [Link] functions as a
protective covering, like it does in our skin.

Modifications of Simple Epithelium

 On the basis of structural modification the simple epithelium is divided into three types:
Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar cells.
 The squamous epithelium is made of a single layer of irregular, thin, flattened cells with
irregular boundaries. They are found in the walls of blood vessels and in air sacs of lungs.
They are involved in functions like forming a diffusion boundary.

 The cuboidal epithelium is made of a single layer of cube-like cells. They are commonly
found in ducts of glands and tubules of nephrons. Its main functions are secretion and
absorption.

 Columnar epithelium is composed of single layer of tall and slender cells. The free
surface of these cells may have microvilli. They are found in lining of stomach and
intestine. It helps in secretion and absorption.

 If the columnar epithelium bears cilia on their free surface they are called ciliated
epithelium. They help to move particles or mucus in a specific direction. They are present
in the inner surface of branchioles and fallopian tubes.
Compound Epithelium

It is made up of more than one layer of cells and has a limited role in secretion and absorption.
They main function is to provide protection against stress. They cover dry surface of skin, moist
surface of buccal cavity, pharynx and inner lining of salivary glands.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues are the most abundant tissues of complex animals. They link and support
other tissues/organs of the body. The connective tissues include cartilage, bone, adipose, and
blood. All connective tissues except blood, secrete structural proteins called colagen or elastin.

Connective tissues are classified into three types - Loose Connective tissue, Dense Connective
tissue, and Specialized Connective tissue.
Loose Connective tissue - These tissues have cells and fibres that are loosely arranged in a semi-
fluid ground substance.
Areolar tissue - It is present beneath the skin, it serves as a framework support for epithelium.
Adipose tissue - This type of tissues is specialized to store fats.
Dense Connective tissue - Fibres and fibroblasts are packed compactly in dense connective
tissue. Tendons are dense regular tissue that attach skeletal muscle to bones and ligaments attach
bone to another bones. Collagen is the dense irregular tissue present in the skin.

Specialized Connective tissue - Cartilage, bones and blood are types of specialized connective
tissue.
Cartilage - Cartilage is solid, pliable tissue. The cells of this tissue is chondrocytes. Cartilage is
present in the tip of the nose, outer ear joints, between bones of vertebral column.

Bones - They are hard and non-pliable, rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres. It provides
structural frame to the bosy. The bone cells are osteocytes. The bone marrow in some bones is
the site of production of blood cells.

Blood - It is a fluid connective tissue. It contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets.
Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissues are made of long cylindrical fibres, arranged in parallel arrays. These fibres are
composed of fine fibrils known as myofibrils. The contraction and relaxation of moves the body
to adjust to the changes in the environment. Muscles are of three types skeletal, smooth, and
cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle - Skeletal muscle is also known as striated muscle. It is closely attached to the
bones, example biceps.

Smooth Muscle - Smooth muscle fibres do not have striated. The wall of internal organs contain
smooth muscles.
Cardiac Muscle - Cardiac muscle tissue is a tissue present only in the heart. Cell junctions fuse
the plasma membranes of cardiac cells. Communication junctions allow the cells to contract as a
unit.
Neural Tissue
Neural tissues controls the body's responses to the changing conditions. Neurons are the units of
neural system, they are excitable cells. The glial cells forms the rest of the neural system, they
protect and support neurons. Its functions in receipt, processing and transferring information.

Structure of Animal Tissue

Structure of the animal tissue

 Epithelial tissues cells are closely packed with junctions.

 Simple cuboidal epithelium are dice shaped cells.

 Simple columnar epithelium are large brick shaped cells.

 Simple squamous epithelium are single layer plate-like cells, thin and leaky.

 Columnar epithelium are single layer of cells, varying in height and ciliated in many
vertebrates.

 Loose connective tissue gets its name from its loose weave of fibres.

 Fibrous connective tissue are dense with collagenous fibres.

 Blood has a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma, which consists of water, salts and
dissolved proteins. The blood cells are suspended in the plasma.

 Cartilage contains collagenous fibres which is embedded in a rubbery protein-

carbohydrate complex called chondroitin surface.

 Bone is a mineralized connective tissue, bone forming cells osteoblasts deposit collagen.
Ions of calcium, magnesium and phosphate combine into a hard material within the
matrix.

 Smooth muscle lack striations, perform involuntary functions.

 Cardiac muscle are striated. It is has fibres that interconnect via intercalated disks. Cells
are uninuclear.

 Muscle tissue contains filaments containing proteins actin and myosin.

 Nervous tissue are made of neurons and glial cells.