LIVING THINGS:

Biology
Biology is defined as the study of living things and they relate with the environment
Living things are broadly divide into 2 categories: Plants and Animals
In this course we will be mainly concerned with the characteristics of the members of
the two categories among other things ref. course objectives.

ANIMALS
Classification of animals
-animals with backbones-Fish, Reptiles, Reptiles, birds, Amphibians and mammals
-animals without backbones-Insects, earth worms, ticks and spiders

Kingdom animalia
Animals with backbones
This is a group of living organisms with distinct characteristics which include;
-They are eukaryotic and multicellular
-No cell wall
-All are heterotrophic
-Most reproduce sexually while a few reproduce asexually
-Most show locomotion but a few are sessile
-Kingdom Animalia is made up of many phyla but in this course, we will learn the characteristics of
only two phyla; namely:-Phylum arthropoda and Phylum chordata.

Animals with backbones

Phylum Chordata
This phylum consists of the fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Below are photographs showing organisms belonging to different classes of phylum chordata.
They include tilapia (fish), frog (amphibians), crocodile (reptiles), domestic fowl (aves) and cow (mammals).

Members of this phylum have the following general characteristics.

 Notochord present at some stage in the lifetime which persists in some organisms but changes to
vertebral column in higher animals.
 Have an endoskeleton made of cartilages and bones
 Have a post anal tail
 Have a dorsal and hollow nerve cord situated in the vertebral column.
 hey are bilaterally symmetrical
 Have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either side of the body
 Have limbs that are formed from more than one body segment e.g. fins in fish, walking legs in frogs
and wings in birds
 Have a ventrally located heart with closed circulatory system.
 Have openings into the pharynx called pharyngeal or visceral clefts at some stage in their life cycle.
Class Pisces
All members of this class live in water and include tilapia, sharks, Nile perch, Sardines and dolphin.

General characteristics
 Are all aquatic
 Most have their bodies covered with scales
 Have gills for gaseous exchange
 Have fins for locomotion
 Have a streamlined body to facilitate movement in water.
 Have a lateral line which acts as a sensory organ
 Are poikilothermic / ectothermic.
 Reproduce sexually with fertilization being internal
 Phylum arthropoda

Class amphibia
This class comprises of the toads, frogs, salamanders and the newts.
They spend part of their life in water and land. Adult amphibians go to water for reproduction; and the earlier
stages of development take place in water (eggs and tadpoles).

They have the following general characteristics

 Soft and moist skin
 Four well developed pentadactyl limbs for locomotion
 Gaseous exchange occurs through the gills in tadpoles; and lungs, buccal cavity and moist skin in
adults
 Closed circulatory system
 Are poikilothermic
 Reproduction is sexual with external fertilization. The females lay eggs in water as the male sprays the
eggs with sperm.
 Closed circulatory system
 Are poikilothermic
 Reproduction is sexual with external fertilization. The females lay eggs in water as the male sprays the
eggs with sperm.
Class reptilia
The word reptilia come from a word reptilis which means crawl because they move by creeping or crawling.
Animals in this class include snakes, turtles, tortoises, crocodiles and lizards.

Main Characteristics include

 Have a dry scaly skin which in a tortoise is hardened to form a shell.
 Two pairs of limbs except the snake
 Fertilization is internal with most laying eggs covered in a leathery shell to reduce desiccation.
In a certain species of chameleon the fertilized egg is retained within the oviduct and gives
birth to live young ones.
 Mostly terrestrial and a few being partially aquatic
 Double circulatory system with most members having a three chambered heart; two atria and
a partially divided ventricle. Note: A crocodile has a four chambered heart
 Well developed lungs for gaseous exchange
 They are poikilothermic or ectothermic.
 They have an internal auditory meatus
 They have lungs for gaseous exchange
 They are endothermic
 They have a double circulation with a four chambered heart

Class aves
These are birds. They are terrestrial and arboreal while some have adapted to aquatic life. Examples
include: Chicken, weaverbird, hawks, eagle and turkeys
.
They have the following general characteristics: -
 Body covered with feathers for insulation and flight
 They have beaks
 The sternum is enlarged to form a keel for attachment of flight muscles
 The hind limbs have scaly skin
 The hind limbs are for walking or swimming.
 The forelimbs are modified into wings for flight. However some birds cannot fly e.g. ostrich
and the emu.
 They have an internal auditory meatus.
 They have lungs for gaseous exchange
 They are endothermic (Homoiothermic).
 Fertilization is internal.
 They lay yolky eggs with calcareous shells.
 They have a double circulation with a four chambered heart.

Class mammalia
This class consists of the most advanced forms of animals. Examples include mice, cats, dogs, cattle,
gazelles, giraffes, elephants, monkeys and human beings.
They have the following general characteristics
 Body covered with fur or hair
 Have external ear lobes
 Females have mammary glands for milk production.
 Have well developed lungs for gaseous exchange
 Have a highly developed brain
 Have a well developed closed circulatory system with a four chambered heart.
 Are Homoiothermic / endothermic.
 Have sweat glands
 They have muscular diaphragm separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Animals without backbones
Members of this phylum have segmented bodies, jointed appendages and an exoskeleton.
This phylum is divided into five classes based on;
 Number of limbs
 Number of body parts
 Number of antennae

The classes are: - Crustacea, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Insecta and Arachnida.

General characteristics
The main characteristics of the phylum arthropoda include: -
 Jointed appendages-some paired and specialized for various functions.
 Body covered with hardened exoskeleton made of chitin and is shed off periodically in a process
called moulting.
 They have segmented bodies.
 Body of most members divided into three body parts namely the head, thorax and abdomen some
have two body parts with the head and thorax fused to form a cephalothorax and abdomen.
 Members are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Have open circulatory system where blood flows in open cavities with a tubular dorsal heart.
 Well developed head with eyes, sensory structures and fairly well developed brain.
 Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system though a few aquatic forms use gills
 Sexes are separate with reproduction being sexual.

Class crustacea
The name crustacean is derived from Crusta which means a hardy shiny coat. Members include lobsters,
crayfish, shrimps, crabs and water fleas.

They share the following characteristics: -

 Head fused with thorax to form a cephalothorax.
 Covered by a shiny coat the carapace.
 Two pairs of antennae
 A pair of compound eyes
 Three pairs of mouth parts that is open pair mandible and two pairs maxillae
 Five to twenty pairs of limbs modified for locomotion, feeding and defense located on cephalothorax
and abdomen.

Class chilopoda
These are arthropods with a pair of walking legs on each segment. This class is comprised of centipedes.

General characteristics of chilopoda are;

 Dorsal-ventrally flattened
 Body divided into two parts head and trunk
 Body comprising of up to 15 or more segments
 A pair of walking legs in each segment
 A pair of simple eyes on the head.
 A pair of antennae
 Posses poison claws on the head which secrete poisonous substances.
 Gaseous exchange is through a tracheal system
 Have separate sexes.

Class diplopoda
This class comprises the millipedes
The illustration below shows the various parts of a millipede

The following are the general characteristics

 Diplopods have three body parts, the head short thorax consisting of four segments and a body trunk
 The body has numerous segments each bearing two pairs of walking legs except for the first thoracic
segment.
 The head has a pair of antennae and mandibles
 Members have cylindrical body
 They have two clumps of many simple eyes
 Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing
 Millipedes have no poison claws
Class arachnida
This class includes, the spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites.
They have the following general characteristics.
 The body has two parts; the cephalothorax and abdomen
 The cephalothorax consists of a fused head and thorax
 The ventral side of cephalothorax has two chelicerae each having a claw-like structure which
produces poison that paralyses prey.
 The cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven joints • Each leg ends in two
toothed claws
 Have no antenna.
 The cephalothorax commonly has eight simple eyes
 Others are parasitic and have specially adapted mouth parts for piecing and sucking blood.
 Most arachnids have book lungs for gaseous exchange
 Some members are carnivorous and are able to paralyze the prey using the poison produced.

Class insecta
Examples of members of this class include: Butterfly, grasshopper, termites and cockroach
The general characteristics of class insect are:
 The body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen.

 The thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs.

 Some insects have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax.
 The head has a pair of antennae, a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes.
 The mouth parts consist of mandibles, maxillae and labium.
 The mouth parts are modified according to their feeding habits. E.g. chewing, piercing and sucking.
 The abdomen is made up of eleven or fewer segments with terminal parts modified for reproduction.
 They breath through spiracles; gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system.
 Excretion is through malphigian tubules, which remove uric acid.
 The insects undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis. In complete metamorphosis The egg
hatches into the larva which changes into the pupa and then into the adult. In the incomplete
metamorphosis The egg hatches into the larvae which are called the nymph. These grow from the 1st
instar 2nd instar 3rd instar and 4th instar. The nymph are similar to the adult but lacks wings and is
sexually immature.
Classification of plants
-green and non green plants
-parts and functions of a plant: leaves, roots, stem, flowers,

Kingdom Plantae.
The general characteristics of kingdom Plantae are:
 Eukaryotic and multicellular
 Body differentiated into leaves, stem and roots
 Have cells with cellulose cell wall
 Have transport system
 They are autotrophic
 Reproduction is both asexual and sexual
 They show alternation of generation

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
I. Most manufacture their food, some are heterotropic, others are parasitic
II. They respire to produce energy
III. Excrete products that they do not need
IV. Increase in size and become more complex
V. Reproduce mainly by formation of seeds, or vegetative means
VI. Have localized movement eg growth response to unidirectional light
VII. Detect and respond to changes within the environment

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
There are various ways of classification:
a) Based on lifespan-annual, biennual and perennial
b) Based on taxonomic units
-Schyzophyta: eg bacteria
-phycophyta: algae
-fungi:
-bryophyta: moses and liverworts
-Spermatophyte: seed bearing plants
-pteridophyta: fern
c) Based on colour of the plant
-green plants
-non green plants
d) Base on reproduction
-flowering plants
-Non- flowering plants

Green and non green plants

Green
Characteristics
 Green because of presence of chlorophyll
 Some produce sexually and others asexually
 Some are flowering and others are non-flowering
Non-green plants
Characteristics
 Don’t have chlorophyll
 Feed on dead decaying matter
 Some are parasitic e.g. ringing fungus
Examples: mould, yeast, mushrooms and toadstools
Flowering and non-flowering plants
Green plants are either flowering or non flowering

Flowering in plants
Characteristics
 all are green in colour
 bodies differentiated into: roots, stems, and leaves
 reproduce mainly sexually ; some sexually
 belong to divisions; spermatophyte

Spermatophyte
Divided into; Angiosperms and gymnosperms
Flowering plants belong to the class Angiosperms

Non-flowering plants
 most produce asexually
 Some belong to sub-division gymnosperms-produce seeds without flowers e.g. pine, cedar,
cypress, podo and cycads. All known as coniferous trees (seeds enclosed on cones)
 other non-flowering plants include – moss, ferns and algae

ANGIOSPERMS
Divided into 2 classes; based on the number of cotyledons
a. 1 cotyledon- monocotyledons
b. 2 cotyledons- dicotyledons

Comparison between monocots and dicots

Monocot Dicotyledons
-leaves have a parallel -netted veins
-floral parts in 3’s or it’s multiples -in fours, fives or their multiples
-fibrous root system -tap root system
-vascular bundles are scattered/irregularity -vascular bundles arranged in circular way
forming a ring
-all monocots are herbaceous -mostly wood

Main parts of a plant

Roots
Lower parts of the plant found in the soil
Functions
-supporting and holding the plant firmly in the soil
-absorb water and minerals salts from the soil
-storage of food
-gaseous exchange e.g. mangrove with breathing roots
-some roots are used for propagation

Types of roots
Main types
a. Taproots
-consist of a single main root growing vertically into the soil
b. Fibrous roots
-consist of several small sized roots

STEM
Part of a plant between roots and leaves
Functions
 supporting branches, flowers, fruits and seeds
 transporting absorbed water and minerals salts
 transporting manufactured food from roots to all parts of the plant
 storage of food e.g. sugarcane, Irish potatoes, onions etc
 carryout photosynthesis in some plants
 storage of water e.g. cactus
 used for vegetative propagation e.g. strawberry
 arranging leaves to obtain maximum light

LEAVES
-upper part of plants attached to the stem
Functions
 contain chlorophyll
 facilitate gaseous exchange
 food storage e.g. cabbages and onions
 control water loss thro’ transpiration

Diagram of a leave

FLOWERS
These are the reproductive parts found in flowering plants

DIAGRAM
FUNCTIONS
 formation of male (pollen) and female (ova)
 attract agents of pollination (insects and birds)
 produce seeds and fruits

Kind of flowers
I. complete flowers-contain all essential and non essential parts
II. incomplete flowers- lack one/more essential parts/ or non essentials parts
III. perfect flower- flower with both stamens and pistil
IV. imperfect flower- flower with reproductive structures of one sex only e.g. flowers of maize
-tassels make up the male parts while the ears make up the female parts

Pollination
It is the process by which pollen is carried from the anthers to the stigma. If it happens within the
same flower it is referred to as self pollination. If it happens between different flowers it is referred
to as cross pollination

Factors that encourage cross pollination

 anthers are below the stigma
 stamens and pistil maturing at different times
 stamens and pistil located in different flowers
 self sterility
 male and female flowers on different plant species

Adv
 promote genetic variability
 increase hybrid vigour
 plants less prone to disease
 there is greater evolutionary potential

Consequences of self pollination

 it increase homozygosity
 there is absence of resistant variety
 plants are more prone to diseases
 recessive genes reduces evolutionary potential
Agents of pollination
Insects, wind and birds
Comparison between insect and wind pollinated flowers
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
1 Have brightly coloured petals and Petals not brightly colored and have little or no
scented scent
2 Have large petals that grow together in Have small or no petals
groups
3 Flower shape designed to enable insects Flowers have no particular shape and male
to get in the nectar parts are often exposed
4 The base of petals have nectarines They have no nectarines
5 Anthers are small are firmly attached to Anthers are large and are loosely attached to
filament the filament
6 Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy Pollen grains are relatively small, light and
and rough or sticky smooth
7 Stigmas are small , sticky and usually Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the
occur inside the flower flowers

Fruits and seed dispersal

Seeds are dispersed with/out fruits
Both seeds and fruits are modified to ensure successful dispersal
Dispersal is necessary because:
 Plants avoid unnecessary overcrowding
 It reduces competition for nutrients and light
 Allows exploitation of new habitats

Methods of dispersal
Animal dispersal
Fruits or seeds dispersed by animals have the following characteristics;
 Fleshy edible fruits
 Some have natural hooks
 Seeds are passed undigested with feaces

Self dispersal/mechanical explosion

In this method the fruits explode and the seeds are thrown away from the mother plant.

Wind dispersal
Fruits have the following characteristics:
 Some have hairy projections to increase buoyancy
 Some are winged and have feathery plumes that act as parachutes
 Some are tiny and light that the wind can blow them far away
Water dispersal
 Can float on water e.g. coconut
 Seeds have waxy coating which prevents them from absorbing water thus prevent rotting
Parts of a seed
 Testa –outer covering
 Radical- embryonic root
 Plumule- embryonic shoot
 Cotyledons- embryonic leaves
 Hypocotyl- parts between radical and cotyledons
 Epicotyls- parts of shoot above cotyledons
 Hilum-seed scar
 Micropyle-opening on the seed wall that facilitate water absorbing water

DIAGRAM OF A SEED

GERMINATION
This the process during which seeds develop into a young plant –seedling
The process involves changes in the seed.
 Water is absorbed (imbibitions) which causes seeds to swell
 Cotyledons become turgid and active
 Water dissolves food in cotyledons , the soluble food is transported to the growing plumule
and radical
 The plumule grows to a shoot and the radical becomes the root

Types of germination
There are 2 types of germination
1. Epigeal germination
-cotyledons are brought above the ground/soil surface
-Hypocotyl curves and pushes upward through the soil protecting the shoot tip
-Hypocotyl straightens and elongates carrying with the two cotyledons
-the first leaves form from the part located a top the epicotyls
2. Hypogeal germination
-cotyledons remains below the ground
-endosperm provides food to the embryo
-epicotyle elongates and the plumule grows upward to form the leaves
-the radical grows to become the primary root

Conditions for germination

Seed germination is determined by both external and internal factors:
External factors
i. Water.
-provides a medium for enzymes to act
-dissolve the broken down food
-transports dissolved food substances to growing parts of the plant
-water softens the seed coat to facilitate emergency of the radical
 ii. Oxygen
-needed for oxidation of food substances stored in the seed
-seeds in water-logged soils can’t germinate due to lack of oxygen
iii. Temperature
- Optimum temp for seeds to germinate is 30o c
-at 45oc the protoplasm is killed and enzymes are denatured
-the rate of germination increases with increase in temp’ until it reaches the optimum

Internal factors
i. Enzymes
-they speed have the reactions involved in the breakdown of food stored in the seeds.
Insoluble enzymes Soluble
carbohydrates diastase Glucose
Fats lipase Fatty acids and glycerol
Protein protease Amino acids

ii) Hormones
 Hormones act as growth stimulators
 They neutralize germination inhibitors
 They are produced at the tips of growing parts of the plants

iii.) Viability
These the ability of a seed to germinate when given the right conditions
Only seeds that are alive are able to germinate
A seed will only germinate when its dormancy period is broken

Vegetative propagations.
It is the growing of new plants from a part of the plant without use of gametes.
Types of vegetative propagation

a. Natural vegetative propagation

Plants structures occur naturally develop to new plants. These structures include: runners or stolons,
rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, and suckers.

b. Artificial vegetative propagation

Artificial methods of preparing plant structures are used [Link], cuttings, tissue culture and
layering. They are collectively known as cloning.
Vegetative propagation by naturally occurring structures
A) Corms- these are food storage organs in arrow roots and cocoyams. Each corm produces one
new plant
B) Bulbs- a bulb of a shoot stem surrounded by layers of modified leaves. A new plant arises
from the bulbs of the stem e.g. onion
C) Rhizomes- these are long modified stems that grow under the soil. They produce new plants
at the nodes along the [Link]. kikuyu grass
D) Suckers- these are short horizontal branches that grow from a stem. In sisal and pineapples
they develop on the stem above the ground. In bananas they emerge from secondary rhizomes
below the surface of the soil, near to the surface of the mother plant.
E) Runners on stolons- are modified stems produced by low-growing plants such as
strawberries. Lateral stems develop shoots at nodes where the plant as developed adventitious
roots.
F) Stem tubers- Are shorter and thicker than rhizomes e.g. potato ‘eye’ is a bud that’s capable
of developing into a new plant e.g. Irish potatoes and yams
G) Root tubers- unlike stem tubers they have no scaly leaves. They develop from adventitious
roots. They produce stems at nodules. Eg sweet potato
H) Bulbils- tiny plants produced in the inflorescence. When they fall on the ground the give rise
to new plants e.g. sisal
I) Splits- are small plants that are obtained by dividing mature plants e.g. pyrethrum
J) Crowns- these are structures broken off from the top of the fruit. Crowns are used in the
propagating pineapples and asparagus

Advantages of vegetative propagation

 Offspring are similar to the parent
 plants mature earlier and multiply quickly
 plants that can’t produce seeds can also grow successfully
 it doesn’t depend on external conditions for pollination

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

 Breeding of new varieties is difficult.
 They can’t be stored for a long time without losing viability
 Materials are bulky and difficult to handle, store and transport
 Disease or pests are easily transmitted to the new plants
 Propagation by this methods gradually reduces the strengthen and vigour of succeeding
generations of plants