Training

UNIT 4
Importance of Training in Organizations

● Training is essential regardless of education level

● Even people with college degrees need job-specific training. Example: A
psychology graduate may still need training to use a company’s specific client
management system.
● Even simple jobs require training:
● Example: At McDonald’s, every employee undergoes training.
○ French fries maker → trained in the proper procedure for frying, oil use,
timings, and safety.
○ Restaurant manager → receives hundreds of hours of training, much of it
classroom-based (covering operations, HR, finances, customer service).
● Jobs becoming more technical → more training required i.e. as workplaces
adopt advanced technologies, employees must continuously learn.
● Example: In banking, employees are trained to use AI-driven customer service
tools and online platforms.
Scope of Training Across Organizations

● Training is a universal HR activity

● Applies to large and small organizations, across private and public sectors, and
worldwide.
● For both new and experienced employees:
○ New employees → learn how to do the job.
○ Experienced employees → trained to adapt to job changes and improve
performance (e.g., communication workshops, leadership training).
● Promotion linked to training
● Many organizations require employees to complete specific training programs
before being considered for promotions.
● Lifelong learning:
○ Jobs require continuous training and updating of skills, not just formal
education.
○ Example: A teacher may hold a master’s degree but still attend workshops
on digital teaching tools.
Five Steps in Effective Organizational Training

1. Needs Assessment - Identify who needs training and what kind of

training is required.
2. Set Objectives - Define what the training should accomplish.
3. Design the Training Program - Decide how the training will be
conducted: lectures, role plays, simulations, online modules, etc
4. Deliver the Training - Conduct the actual training for employees
identified in the needs assessment.
5. Evaluate the Training - Check if training met its objectives.
NEEDS ASSESSMENT
● Conducted to determine:
1. Which employees need training
2. What the training content should be
● Prevents waste of training resources by:
1. Avoiding training the wrong people
2. Avoiding teaching the wrong content
● Ensures resources are spent on demonstrated training needs.

Levels of Needs Assessment (Goldstein, 1993)

1. Organization Level
● Focus: Organization’s objectives and how employee performance addresses
them.
● Training needs identified based on organizational goals.
● Examples: If goal = minimize injuries → train employees in workplace safety
principles.
2. Job Level

● Focus: Tasks involved in each job.

● Method: Job analysis → identifies major tasks + required KSAOs
● Training needs derived from required KSAOs.
● Example: A police officer must know legal arrest procedures → obvious area for
training.

3. Person Level

● Focus: How well job applicants or employees perform job tasks.

● Assesses individual KSAO levels compared to job requirements.
● Helps identify:
○ Deficiencies → training to remedy weaknesses.
○ Strengths → training to enhance skills for added responsibilities or
promotions.
● Example: An employee lacking computer skills may be trained in software use;
another with strong skills may get leadership training for promotion.
Analyzing Existing Training Programs (Ford & Wroten, 1984)

● Procedure: Similar to job analysis, but applied to training programs.

● Steps:
1. SMEs (Subject Matter Experts) review training program content →
compile a list of KSAOs addressed.
2. A separate SME group rates importance of each KSAO for the job.
● Outcome: Shows how well the training program matches job training needs.
● Use: Helps organizations adopt or modify programs accordingly.
● Despite importance, many organizations do not use it.
● Survey of 1,000 large U.S. private companies:
1. Only 27% conducted needs assessments before training
management-level employees (Saari, Johnson, McLaughlin, &
Zimmerle, 1988).
● Result: Training resources often wasted because assessment was skipped.
OBJECTIVES
Part of this step is to:

● Define the criteria for training success.

● Objectives should state what a trainee should be able to do or know after
training.
○ Example:
■ Objective = acquire knowledge of safety rules.
■ Criterion = trainee must score above a cutoff mark on a knowledge
test.
● One of the most important steps in developing a training program.
● Without clear objectives → difficult to design training that achieves desired
outcomes.
● Criteria serve as the foundation for:
1. Designing training programs → training is built to achieve the criteria.
2. Evaluating training effectiveness → criteria are the standards against which
success is measured.
Example:

● If the criterion = employees must handle customer complaints

effectively,
● Training design = role plays and simulations.
● Evaluation = measure if complaints are resolved faster and more
satisfactorily.

● Training objectives should be based on results of the needs assessment.

● Ensures that objectives are relevant to actual organizational, job, and
person-level needs.
TRAINING
DESIGN
Purpose of Organizational Training

● Training is conducted with the expectation that employees will apply what they have
learned on the job.
● This application is called transfer of training.

Transfer of Training

● The degree to which knowledge/skills learned in training are applied effectively on the job.
● Challenges:
○ No guarantee that training will always transfer successfully.
○ Influenced by:
■ Job environment factors (e.g., support from supervisors, opportunities to
practice).
■ Training design factors (e.g., relevance of material, methods used).
■ Individual differences among trainees (e.g., motivation, ability, prior knowledge).
● Example: If employees are trained in conflict resolution but their workplace discourages
open communication, the training may not transfer.
Baldwin & Ford (1988) Model of Transfer

● Training transfer depends on:

○ Training design → how well the program is structured.
○ Individual differences → trainee characteristics.
○ Work environment → organizational support, resources,
opportunities.
● Learning quality → directly affects how well training transfers to the
job.

Training Design Factors

● Design features affect:

○ How well trainees learn during training.
○ How effectively training transfers to actual job performance.
Training Delivery Techniques

● Training can be conducted using various methods, ranging from passive to

active approaches.
● Examples:
○ Lecture (passive) → trainees listen to a presentation.
○ Simulation (active) → trainees practice and apply new skills in realistic
scenarios.
● Key Point:
○ Each method is useful in some training situations.
○ Choice depends on the training objectives, content, and trainee needs.
Trainee Characteristics
Importance of Individual Differences
● Differences in ability and motivation significantly affect learning
(Herold, Davis, Fedor, & Parsons, 2002).
● Not everyone is equally capable of learning the same task.
● Examples:
■ One person may excel at cognitive tasks (e.g.,
problem-solving).
■ Another may excel at motor tasks (e.g., athletic
performance).
● Training must recognize and adapt to these differences.
Ability Differences

Study by Bunker & Cohen (1977):

● Training program: basic electronics theory for telephone company

employees.
● Mathematical ability assessed before training.
● Electronics knowledge measured before and after training.
● Results:
■ Trainees with higher math ability gained the most from training.
■ Low-ability trainees required more training to reach the same
knowledge level.
● Implication:
○ Training should be individualized → give each trainee the amount of
training needed to meet the training criterion.
○ Some employees may need more training time than others.
Motivation & Attitudes

● Impact: Attitudes and motivation influence training outcomes and job

performance (Noe & Schmitt, 1986).
● Key Point:
○ People who do not wish to learn gain little from training.
● Ways to Motivate Trainees:
○ Provide external rewards (e.g., promotion, recognition,
certification).
○ Make training engaging and interesting.
● Meta-analysis by Colquitt, LePine, & Noe (2000):
○ Motivation is consistently linked to:
■ Transfer of training (applying skills on the job).
■ Positive employee attitudes.
Learning Preferences
● People differ in how they best learn new material:
○ Some → learn well from oral presentations.
○ Others → prefer written materials for study and reflection.
● Training Implications:
○ Consider capacities and preferences.
○ Example:
■ Employees with low reading skills → train using verbal
methods (e.g., demonstrations, discussions).
■ Employees who enjoy studying independently → provide
manuals or written guides.
Design Factors That Affect Transfer of Training

● Transfer of training model specifies five design factors that influence transfer.
● Each factor must be considered in training program design.
1. Feedback
● Critical component of learning.
● Without feedback, learning is unlikely to occur.
● Trainees need feedback to know if they are learning the correct material.
● Ways Feedback Can Be Built In:
○ For knowledge-based training:
■ Examinations to test information learned.
■ Opportunities for trainees to ask questions of the trainer.
■ Example: Standard practice in most college/university courses.
○ For skill-based training:
■ Allow trainees to practice and receive instructor feedback.
■ Example: Driving training – learner practices driving while instructor provides
immediate guidance.
■ Feedback can also be task-based → trainee notices if they are staying on the
road or driving straight.
2. General Principles

● Training should explain why something is done, not just how it is done.
● Application in Training Programs:
○ Many programs include sections on underlying principles.
○ Example: In computer training, a brief introduction to the principles
of computer and software designmay be provided.
■ General explanation of what a computer is and how it works.
● Purpose of Teaching General Principles:
○ Provides a framework for learning.
○ Helps trainees make sense of tasks and apply knowledge to new
situations.
● Evidence:
○ Research (Baldwin & Ford, 1988) shows that including general
principles, when appropriate, enhances learning.
3. Identical Elements in Training

● Definition:
○ A training program with strong transfer should include identical
elements.
○ This means:
■ Responses in training = identical to responses required on the
job.
■ Stimuli perceived in training = identical to those in the job
setting.
● Key Point:
○ The closer the match between training and job (in both responses
and stimuli),
○ The easier it is for trainees to apply learned skills in real work
situations.
Example: Flight Simulators

● Training device → applies the principle of identical elements.

● Allows trainees to practice flying without leaving the ground.
● Two Types of Simulators:
○ High-Fidelity Simulator
■ Extremely realistic.
■ Example: A real cockpit mounted on a moving platform.
■ Simulator motions match aircraft controls.
■ If trainee pulls back on the stick → cockpit tilts upward.
■ Provides the closest experience to actual flying.
○ Low-Fidelity Simulator
■ Example: A computer game simulating flying.
■ Less realistic but still contains authentic elements of real flight.
■ Used by organizations such as the U.S. Navy for training pilots in certain aspects
of flying.
● Training Path:
○ Low-fidelity simulators help trainees build foundational skills.
○ High-fidelity simulators are required for complete, advanced training.
4. Overlearning in Training

● Definition:
○ Practice given beyond what is needed to reach the criterion of success in training.
○ Learner first masters the material, then continues practicing → consolidates
skill/knowledge.
● Outcome:
○ Leads to automaticity → ability to perform a task smoothly without conscious
monitoring.
○ Example tasks:
■ Driving a car
■ Riding a bicycle

Benefits of Overlearning

● Automatic performance: Tasks can be executed with little thought.

● Higher effectiveness: Results in smoother, faster, and more reliable performance.
● Organizational training goal: Ensures employees can act quickly and effectively under
pressure.
Example: Athletics

● Athletes practice skills until automaticity is achieved.

● Important because:
○ Actions are complex.
○ Executed in short timeframes → not enough time to consciously think
about each element.
● Overlearned elements → performed automatically & quickly.

Example: Workplace Application (Emergency Room)

● Hospital ER scenario:
○ No time to think step-by-step during life-saving tasks.
○ Staff must operate equipment and perform procedures quickly &
automatically.
● Overlearned skills → crucial in time-sensitive, high-stress situations.
Building Overlearning into Training

● How to build it in:

○ Repetition & Practice → ensures rehearsal & consolidation.
○ Information/knowledge training:
■ Repetition of key concepts.
■ Examinations → act as rehearsal.
○ Manual skills training:
■ Must go beyond doing the skill correctly once.
■ Requires repeated practice until skill becomes automatic.
○ Key point: More practice → greater chance of applying learning on the job.

Research on Overlearning

● Driskell, Willis & Copper (1992) Meta-analysis:

○ Defined overlearning = practice after reaching criterion performance.
○ Ranges: 0% (no overlearning) → 200% (double the training after mastery).
■ Example: If 2 hrs to mastery → 200% overlearning = +4 hrs practice.
○ Findings:
■ More overlearning → greater performance gains (short-term).
■ But, most studies measured retention within 1 week.
■ Overlearning done in a single session.
Short-term vs Long-term Retention

● Rohrer et al. (2005):

○ Compared short-term (1 week) vs long-term (9 weeks) retention.
○ Results:
■ Overlearners retained more material short-term.
■ But by 9 weeks → initial gains mostly disappeared.
○ Suggestion:
■ Use spaced training → distribute extra practice over time, not in
one long session.
5. Sequencing Training Sessions

Two Aspects of Sequencing

● Part vs. Whole training

● Massed vs. Spaced training

a. Part Training

● Definition: Task is broken into smaller components; each part is learned separately. Once
mastered, parts are combined into the whole task.
● When used:
○ Best for complex tasks with multiple components.
○ Useful when attempting the entire task at once would overwhelm the trainee.
● Examples:
○ Golf/Tennis: Learn individual elements (e.g., swing, serve, footwork) before putting
them together in the full game.
○ Typing: Practice finger placement row by row before typing full words and sentences.
○ Assembly line work: Learn one step of machine operation at a time.
Whole Training

● Definition: The task is taught as a single, complete unit without breaking it

down.
● When used:
○ Best for simple or integrated tasks where breaking into parts disrupts
natural flow.
● Examples:
○ Riding a bicycle: Pedaling, steering, and balancing are learned together.
○ Learning a simple dance move: Practicing the entire step sequence at
once.
○ Operating a basic tool: Using a hammer or screwdriver.
Massed vs. Spaced Training

a. Massed Training

● Definition: Long training sessions over a short period of time.

● Characteristics:
○ Intensive, condensed format.
○ May cause fatigue but allows fast exposure to material.
● Examples:
○ 10-hour crash course in one day vs. spreading out training.
○ Intensive coding bootcamp weekend.
○ Emergency first-aid training done in one continuous session.
Spaced Training

● Definition: Shorter training sessions spread out over time.

● Characteristics:
○ Allows better retention and less fatigue.
○ Provides time for practice and reflection between sessions.
● Examples:
○ 1-hour session daily for 10 days.
○ Language learning: Weekly classes with practice in between.
○ Athletic training schedules: Spread across weeks/months to build
skills gradually.
Massed Training – Practical Advantages

● Efficiency & Convenience

○ Easier for organizations to give a full day off for training than several
shorter sessions.
○ Avoids disruptions from repeatedly arranging temporary replacements
for 1-hour sessions.
● Cost & Logistics
○ Paying a substitute for a full day is often simpler than managing hourly
replacements.
○ Reduces travel burden if training is in another city—one trip instead of
multiple.
● Organizational Preference
○ Commonly chosen due to practical constraints (time, cost, workforce
management).
Spaced Training – Long-Term Effectiveness

● Better Retention
○ Research (Cepeda et al., 2006, 2008, 2009) shows spaced training
produces stronger and longer-lasting learning than massed training.
○ The optimal spacing interval depends on how long information needs to
be remembered.
■ Longer spacing → better for long-term retention.
● Application
○ Best for knowledge/skills not used frequently (e.g., first aid, CPR).
○ Refresher training over weeks/months ensures skills remain accessible
when needed.
● Less Needed for Regularly Used Skills
○ If skills are applied daily on the job, spaced refreshers may be
unnecessary.
Problems with Massed Training

● Boredom
○ Long sessions reduce attention and engagement.
● Fatigue
○ Limits how long people can effectively learn.
○ Example: 10-hour tennis practice → exhaustion reduces learning.
○ Same applies to mental tasks → studying for too long lowers efficiency.
● Cramming Analogy
○ Students who cram before exams experience fatigue and shallow
retention → similar to massed training limits.
Work Environment

● Training does not occur in isolation → it is part of a complex organizational

environment.
● Whether employees apply learned skills on the job largely depends on the work
environment.
● Management may provide training, but direct supervisors might resist its
implementation.
● Example: Supervisors may tell employees not to use new procedures in their
departments.
● This creates a barrier to transfer of training → skills remain unused despite
investment.
● Work environments where supervisors and peers encourage the use of new
skills lead to:
○ Higher employee motivation to learn.
○ Greater transfer of training to the job (Machin & Fogarty, 2003).
● Support is critical for success → even the best-designed training fails
without it.
● Achieving supervisor and employee support goes beyond just designing
effective training.
● Requires organizational change, communication, and alignment with
workplace practices.
● Even with training and support, employees need the chance to apply new
skills.
● Example: Training employees on a new computer system →
○ If the system is not yet implemented at work, training has no practical
effect.
● This highlights the link back to needs assessment:
○ Employees should only receive training in areas relevant to their actual
job tasks.
TRAINING
METHODS
● Many different training methods are available in organizations.
● No single method is “best” → effectiveness depends on:
● The training content (what is being taught).
● The trainees (who is being trained).
● The context (resources, goals, work environment).
● Flexibility is key → best training programs adapt methods to fit both
learners and training objectives (Callahan, Kiker, & Cross, 2003).
● Different people learn best through different approaches.
● Example: Some employees may learn better through hands-on practice.
Others may benefit from visual demonstrations or reading materials.
● A single training program often uses multiple methods together.
● This maximizes strengths and compensates for limitations.
● Example: Pilot training
● Complex tasks typically require a variety of approaches for full mastery.
1. Audiovisual Instruction
● Definition: Training that uses electronic presentation of materials.
○ Examples: audiotapes, videotapes, DVDs, computer-based media.
● Traditional Uses:
○ Audio recordings and films have been long used for training purposes.
● Modern Uses (Technology-Enhanced):
○ Tools like PowerPoint, animations, video demonstrations now common
in business & higher education.
● Flexibility:
○ Can be used in lectures to support group learning.
○ Can also be used in autoinstruction (self-paced learning) → leads into
the next training method.
2. Auto Instruction

● Definition:
○ Any training method that is self-paced and does not involve an instructor.
● Most common technique: Programmed Instruction
○ Divides training content into small chunks or frames.
○ Each frame includes:
1. Information to learn.
2. Question to answer.
3. Answer to the previous frame’s question (immediate feedback).
● Key Features:
○ Self-paced → learner controls the speed.
○ Repetition built-in → material appears multiple times for reinforcement.
○ Feedback provided → correct answers given almost immediately.
● Mediums:
○ Originally: books/manuals.
○ Now: computer-based methods (more flexible, interactive, adaptive).
3. Conference

● Definition:
○ A meeting between trainer and trainees to discuss material.
● Distinctive Features:
○ Allows interaction: participants can ask questions and discuss ideas.
○ Encourages free flow of ideas → goes beyond pre-packaged content.
○ Creates an active learning environment.
● Best Use:
○ Most effective with trainees who already have some expertise in the
material.
○ Works well for higher-level learning, where deeper analysis and application
are needed.
● Example in Academia:
○ Ph.D. training in I/O psychology → conferences are a major teaching
method.
4. Lecture

● Definition:
○ A presentation by a trainer delivered to a group of trainees.
● Advantages:
○ Efficiency → one trainer can present to a large audience.
○ Scales up easily (e.g., university lectures with hundreds or thousands of
students).
○ Effective when feedback is not needed.
● Limitations:
○ Limited feedback → interaction decreases as group size increases.
○ Example: If 40 people each asked 1 question, the trainer would have little time
left to present.
○ Can be passive learning if not supplemented with other methods.
● Best Use:
○ Situations where information needs to be delivered quickly and interaction is
less critical.
5. Modeling

● Definition:
○ Trainees observe someone performing a task and then imitate (model) what they have
seen.
○ The model can be live or recorded.
● Key Features:
○ Models may show both effective and ineffective examples.
○ Used heavily in supervisory training (e.g., how to give negative feedback to a poorly
performing employee).
○ Trainer provides feedback on how well the trainee imitates the behavior.
● Advantages:
○ Encourages active practice and feedback-based learning.
○ Supported by research as effective for interpersonal skills training.
● Evidence:
○ Taylor, Russ-Eft, & Chan (2005): Meta-analysis showed modeling improves
performance on tests and simulations.
○ Simon & Werner (1996): Modeling produced better learning than autoinstruction or
lecture in training U.S. naval personnel on a computer system.
6. On-the-Job Training (OJT)

● Definition:
○ Any method where employees learn while performing actual job tasks.
○ Training occurs directly at the workplace.
● Forms:
○ Informal: New employee observes and imitates an experienced worker.
○ Formal: Structured programs like apprenticeships.
● Apprenticeship Model:
○ Trainer = skilled employee performing the job.
○ Apprentice = assistant, learning by doing alongside trainer.
○ Common in trades/technical jobs (e.g., electricians, plumbers).
● Advantages:
○ Provides hands-on experience.
○ Trainee contributes to productivity while learning.
○ Effective for complex jobs requiring years of training.
● Limitations:
○ Risk of wasted investment if employee quits before training is completed.
○ Productivity may be reduced while the trainer balances work + training.
7. Role-Playing

● Definition:
○ A simulation where the trainee acts out a task or situation.
○ Focused on interpersonal skills (e.g., giving feedback, counseling, conflict
resolution).
● Relation to Modeling:
○ Unlike modeling, role play does not start with observing another person.
○ Instead, trainees directly perform the role.
● Advantages:
○ Provides active practice in realistic scenarios.
○ Especially useful for supervisory/managerial training.
● Limitations:
○ Costly in time & resources.
○ Only a few trainees can participate at one time.
8. Simulations

● Definition:
○ A training technique where specialized equipment or materials are used to recreate a real task situation.
○ Trainees must act as if the situation is real and perform tasks accordingly.
● Applications:
○ Equipment-based training → e.g., learning to operate airplanes, automobiles.
○ Business decision-making simulations → e.g., running an airport, factory, or making organizational
decisions.
○ Can be based on real examples from the same organization, making them highly relevant.
● Advantages:
○ Provides a safe environment for practice without real-world risks.
○ Allows trainees to apply knowledge and skills in realistic contexts.
○ Can be customized to reflect actual job challenges.
● Limitations:
○ Small group participation (similar to role play).
○ Can be expensive if specialized equipment is needed.
○ Requires time and resources to design realistic scenarios.
● Modern Improvement:
○ Computer-based simulations → allow broader participation.
○ Reduces the limitation of “few trainees at a time.”
○ Widely available across organizations due to technological advancement.
9. Electronic Training (E-learning)

● Definition:
○ Use of electronic tools/technology to deliver training.
○ Can adapt traditional methods (e.g., web-broadcasting a lecture) or provide
sophisticated, individualized training with feedback and assessment.
○ Training is often web-based, available anytime, anywhere.

Types / Approaches

● Simple use of tech:

○ Example: A lecture broadcast online for remote access.
● Advanced systems:
○ Adaptive training → adjusts content to trainee’s proficiency level.
○ Built-in assessments → provide feedback and allow skipping of mastered
material.
○ Web-based practice → continuous training until criterion is achieved.
Advantages (DeRouin, Fritzsche, & Salas, 2005)

1. Learner control → trainees choose where, when, and sometimes in what order to learn.
2. Rapid development & updates → training modules can be created/modified quickly and
shared via email or online platforms.
3. Blended learning → combines E-learning with traditional training (e.g., classroom + online
exercises).
4. Customization → content can adapt to individual needs (e.g., automatic progression once
mastery is shown).
5. Flexibility & efficiency → training accessible at convenience (even during short breaks).
6. Reduced absenteeism → employees don’t need to leave work for training.

Examples

● Online compliance training modules.

● Interactive simulations for customer service.
● Adaptive platforms (e.g., language learning apps that adjust difficulty).
● Corporate LMS systems (Learning Management Systems).
Limitations

● Requires access to technology and reliable internet.

● Less effective for hands-on/manual tasks without blended support.
● Potential for lower engagement if content is not interactive.
● Motivation Issues (Brown, 2005):
a. Since it is self-paced, there is no trainer or peer group to motivate learners.
b. Learners with low intrinsic interest may struggle to complete modules.
● Workload & Time Constraints (Oiry, 2009):
a. Employees often asked to complete training “when they find time.”
b. Supervisors may be reluctant to give breaks due to heavy workloads.
c. Easier to maintain training momentum when employees are given
dedicated time off for training (like classroom sessions).
● Suitability Limitations:
a. Not ideal for all types of training, especially those requiring hands-on
practice or high interaction.
10. Mentoring

● Definition (Baranik, Roling, & Eby, 2010):

○ A special work relationship between two employees.
○ More experienced employee provides:
■ Advice & Coaching
■ Counseling
■ Friendship
■ Acts as a role model.

Forms of Mentoring

● Traditional: Mentor is usually a senior / higher-level employee (often supervisor).

● Peer Mentoring (Allen, McManus, & Russell, 1999):
○ Mentor is a peer at the same level but with greater experience.

Functions of Mentoring

● Orientation: Helps new employees adjust to their job/organization.

● Career Development (Young & Perrewe, 2004):
○ Long-term growth & guidance within the company.
Benefits for Protégés

● Better job performance.

● Quicker promotion opportunities.
● Improved job attitudes (e.g., satisfaction, commitment).
● Reduced turnover.

Benefits for Mentors

● Increased personal satisfaction.

● Enhanced job performance.
● Recognition by others.
● Future loyalty from protégés → useful for organizational success.
Gender Differences in Mentoring & Formal Programs

Findings on Gender Differences (O’Brien et al., 2010):

● Protégés:
○ Men and women equally likely to receive mentoring.
○ Women more likely to receive emotional support.
● Mentors:
○ Men more likely to provide career assistance.
○ Women more likely to provide emotional support.
● Note: Effects were small → avoid gender stereotypes.

Mentoring Types:

● Natural mentoring:
○ Develops organically through workplace relationships.
○ More likely among achievement-oriented, sociable employees.
● Formal mentoring programs:
○ Organization assigns mentors and protégés.
○ Useful for employees who struggle to find mentors naturally.
○ Assigned relationships may not always be effective.
Factors for Successful Mentoring (Allen, Eby, & Lentz, 2006):

● Allowing mentor and protégé input in pairing.

● Providing training for mentors and protégés.

Potential Problems:

● Assigned mentorships: May lack compatibility.

● Dysfunctional mentoring:
○ Overly critical mentor.
○ Undermining behavior.
○ Can be worse than no mentor at all → leads to significant problems for
protégés.
11. Executive Coaching

Definition & Purpose:

● Executives/managers paired with a consultant (executive coach) to improve

performance.
● Originally: For managers with performance problems.
● Now: Also used to enhance skills of well-performing managers (Bono et al.,
2009).

How Coaching Works:

● Feedback collection: From employees/subordinates (e.g., 360-degree feedback).

● Action plan: Coach helps executive interpret feedback and target weak areas
(e.g., communication skills).
● Ongoing process: Long-term coaching with continual advice and feedback.
Concerns:

● No standard background or credentials required to be a coach.

● No clear consensus on necessary KSAOs (Bono et al., 2009).
● Coaches come from varied fields (e.g., I/O psychology, consulting,
management).

Effectiveness (Research Evidence):

● Limited but positive findings:

○ Grant, Curtayne, & Burton (2009): Coaching can improve outcomes.
○ Baron & Morin (2010): Coached managers showed ↑ self-efficacy
(confidence in abilities).
● Self-efficacy: Important prerequisite for strong job performance.
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF
DELIVERY AND
EVALUATION OF A
TRAINING
PROGRAM
Delivery of a Training Program

● A well-designed program can still fail if not delivered properly.

Who Delivers Training:

● Usually specialists skilled in training delivery.

● Trainers:
○ May not be experts in training content or design.
○ Their role is to deliver effectively.

Division of Responsibilities:

● Content expertise: Subject Matter Experts (SMEs).

● Program design expertise: I/O psychologists & related professionals.
● Delivery expertise: Training specialists.

Note on I/O Psychologists:

● Strong in program design, but program delivery is not their main activity.
● Focus shifts to training evaluation in their role.
Evaluation of a Training Program

Key Idea:

● For I/O psychologists, a training program is not complete until evaluated.

● Evaluation = research to check if the program had its intended effects.

Why Evaluation Matters:

● Many training programs are ineffective.

● Example: Morrow, Jarrett, & Rupinski (1997) → Out of 18 programs, 5 cost more than the returns
in improved performance.
● Evaluation uses research design principles (similar to any organizational intervention study).

Five Steps of Training Evaluation:

1. Define criteria → Standards to judge effectiveness (must be established first).

2. Choose study design → How the evaluation will be structured.
3. Choose measures → Tools/tests to assess criteria.
4. Collect data → Gather information from participants.
5. Analyze & interpret results → Decide if the program was effective.
Criteria

● Training criteria = standards to evaluate training effectiveness.

● Clear criteria allow proper evaluation of whether training goals were met.
● Example: A manufacturing company sets a goal of 10% fewer defective products → evaluation is
straightforward.

Two Levels of Criteria:

1. Training-level criteria
○ Concerned with what people can do at the end of training (in training setting).
○ Focus = learning outcomes.
2. Performance-level criteria
○ Concerned with how people perform on the job.
○ Focus = transfer of training.
● Both are important:
○ Training-level → shows what was learned.
○ Performance-level → shows impact on job.
○ Example: First aid training → learning achieved (training-level), but no job effect if no
accidents occur.
Kirkpatrick’s Four Types of Criteria (1977)
Training-level criteria
1. Reactions
● How much trainees liked the training.
● How much they believed they benefited.
● Measured with questionnaires at the end of training.
2. Learning
● What trainees actually learned (knowledge & skills).
● Measured by exams, tests, or demonstrations.
● Common in schools/universities:
● Student evaluations → reactions.
● Exam scores → learning.
Performance-level criteria
3. Behavior
● Looks at whether trainees apply training on the job.
● Concerned with observable workplace behavior.
4. Results
● Focus on organizational outcomes.
● Did training reduce costs, errors, turnover or improve productivity, quality?
● Considered the bottom line of training effectiveness.
Importance of All Four Criteria

● Each criterion = only a partial indicator of success.

● Meta-analysis (Alliger et al., 1997):
● Training criteria within the same study are only slightly correlated.
● Meaning: Positive results at one level don’t guarantee success at another.

Examples from Research:

● Campion & Campion (1987):

● Interview skills training = effective at training level (people learned).
● But no impact at performance level (no transfer).
● Maurer, Solamon, Andrews, & Troxtel (2001):
● Interview training improved actual job interviews → showed transfer.
Choose Design

● A design = structure of a study → specifies how data are collected.

● In training evaluation, the type of criterion limits which designs can be used.

Reactions Criteria

● Only feasible design = post-training assessment once (end of training).

● Why?
○ Control group not possible → nonparticipants cannot react to training they didn’t
attend.
○ Pre-training assessment meaningless → participants cannot react to training they
haven’t yet experienced.

Other Criteria (Learning, Behavior, Results)

● Can use multiple designs.

● Two most common designs:
1. Pretest–Posttest
2. Control Group
Pretest–Posttest Design

Purpose:

● Shows how much trainees gained from training.

● Can assess:
○ Learning outcomes (knowledge/skills).
○ Behavior change (on the job).

Process:

● Pretest → measure criteria before training.

● Training delivery.
● Posttest → measure criteria after training.
○ Example: Training to improve productivity.
■ Measure productivity 6 months before training.
■ Measure again 6 months after training.
Advantages:

● Practical and easy to implement in organizations.

● Can be built naturally into programs:
○ e.g., entry test (what they know before).
○ exit test (what they learned).
● Can also provide feedback to trainees.

Limitations:

● Hard to attribute changes directly to training.

● Other factors may cause improvements:
○ Example: Supervisors realize performance is being monitored → increase
pressure → improved performance.
● Especially problematic for performance criteria.
● To confirm training effect → need control group design.
Control Group Design
Purpose:
● Compares trained employees vs. untrained employees (control).
Process:
● Select employees for study.
● Randomly assign:
○ Training group.
○ Control group (no training).
● At end of training → assess all employees on measures of interest.
● Compare groups → differences indicate training effects.
Advantages:
● Better at identifying training impact.
● Controls for possibility that other factors (not training) caused
change.
Limitations:
● Harder to implement in organizations.
● Random assignment not always possible.
● Contamination risk: trained employees may share information
with controls.
Choose Measures of the Criteria

● After choosing criteria → need to decide how to measure them.

● The type of criterion largely determines the appropriate measurement method.

By Criterion Type:

1. Reactions Criteria
○ Require questionnaire → completed by trainees.
○ Questionnaire design must be decided.
○ Possible questions:
■ “How much did you learn?”
■ “Was the training enjoyable?”
2. Learning Criteria
○ Usually involve a test at the end of training.
○ Depends on training focus:
■ Knowledge training → knowledge test (like school exam).
■ Skill training → role play, simulation test, or performance demonstration.
3. Performance Criteria
○ Measured in the actual job setting (not in training).
○ Looks at on-the-job behavior or results.
Collect Data

Logic:

● Evaluation study is simple in principle but hard in practice.

● Collecting data often involves many challenges.

Challenges:

● People uncooperative → may not complete tests/questionnaires.

● Random assignment rare in organizations.
○ Often → trained group from one department, control group from another.
○ Risk: observed differences may be due to department differences, not training.

Best Practices:

● Always plan the best possible design.

● Expect problems and modifications → a good researcher adapts.
● If conducted properly → can draw valid conclusions about training effectiveness.
Analyze & Interpret Data
Analysis Tools:
● Use inferential statistics to interpret data.
● Examples:
○ Pretest–Posttest design → shows how much trainees improved.
○ Control Group design → shows difference between trained vs.
untrained.
○ Often a t-test is enough.
Conclusions (if all steps done well):
● Can confidently determine effectiveness of training.
Multi-Level Evaluation

● Training should be evaluated at both levels:

1. Training level → Did they learn?
2. Performance level → Did it improve job outcomes?

Possible Outcomes:

1. Effective at both → keep training.

2. Ineffective at both → eliminate or redesign training.
3. Effective at training level but not performance level → training is
incomplete/wrong approach.
○ Example: Productivity problem → may be due to poor equipment or
supervision, not trainee skill.
○ Training operators won’t help if external issues reduce productivity.
Continuous Improvement
● Every new training program should include evaluation.
● If found ineffective → stop or modify.
● Pilot testing is recommended:
○ Test with small employee group.
○ Evaluate at multiple levels.
○ Modify based on results before large-scale rollout.
● Ensures best use of training resources.