Module 1

Introduction
• Tribology is derived from the Greek word “Tribos”. Meaning of Tribos is Rubbing.

• Tribology is a science that deals with friction, lubrication and wear in all contacting
pairs.

• Tribological knowledge helps to improve service life, safety and reliability of

interacting machine components; and yields substantial economic benefits.

• Defined as the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and
related subjects and practices.

• Generally deals with technology of lubrication, control of friction and prevention of

wear of surfaces having relative motion under load.

• Knowledge of chemistry of lubricants, physics of fluid flow, surface topography,

contact mechanics, materials science, mathematics, mechanical engg. –
INTERDISCIPLINARY
 History
• Ancestors were concerned with reducing friction in translationary motion.
• Use of wheels from 3500 B.C.
• Drills were made during Paleolithic period for drilling holes. They were fitted with
bearings made of bones or antlers.
• Potters wheels or stones for grinding cereals indicate knowledge of some form of
bearings.
• A tomb in Egypt provides some evidences of use of lubricants.
• A chariot still contains some of the animal lubricants in its wheel bearings.
• A ball thrust bearing dated 40 AD was found in Lake Nimi near Rome.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) postulated a scientific approach to friction.
• Deduced laws governing motion of a rectangular block bearing over a flat surface.
• Introduced the concept of coefficient of friction.
• His work remained unpublished for a long time.
• In 1699, Amontons rediscovered the laws and is usually credited with the discovery
of two laws.
 History Contd…
• First, the friction force resisting sliding at the interface is directly proportional to
the normal loads.
• Second the friction force does not depend on the apparent area of contact.
• Later Coulomb verified these laws and added a third part.
• Friction force is independent of velocity once motion starts.
• Coulomb provided a clear distinction between static and kinetic friction.
• These three laws are still found in elementary physics and engineering.
• In 1500s, development in bearing materials took place.
• In later part of 18th century, industrial developments occurred.
 Interdisciplinary Nature
• Friction, wear and lubrication have been taught in many science and engineering
classes at a rudimentary level.
• It means empirically derived trends (friction force is proportional to loading force,
static friction is greater than kinetic friction, viscous friction in a fluid is
proportional to the normal contact force, etc.) are often used as the only predictive
tools available.
• These approaches have the drawbacks of being predictive only over a limited range
of parameters.
• Since the under-laying physical mechanisms are not well understood, often one
does not even know which are the important parameters or over what range the
observed trends are valid.
• This poor predictive power has led the field of tribology being perceived in many
scientific quarters.
 Interdisciplinary Nature Contd..
• Most tribological phenomenon are inherently complicated and interconnected, making it
necessary to understand the concepts of TRIBOLOGY in details.

• Integration of knowledge from multifaceted disciplines(solid mechanics, fluid

mechanics, material science, chemistry etc) is essential and therefore a separate subject
is required.

• Solid Mechanics: Focus is on expressions of contact stresses/deformations and surface

temperatures due to rolling/sliding.

• Fluid Mechanics: Study of lubricant film formed between various geometric shapes of
rolling/sliding surfaces.

• Material Science: Focus is on atomic and micro scales mechanisms whereby solid
surface degradation or alteration occurs during relative motion.

• Chemistry: Deals with reactivity between lubricants and solid surfaces.

• Thermodynamics: Heat and mass transfer in fluids and bounding solids.

 Industrial Significance

• Tribology is crucial to modern machinery which uses sliding and rolling surfaces.

• Examples of productive friction are brakes, clutches, driving wheels on trains and
automobiles, bolts, and nuts.

• Examples of productive wear are writing with a pencil, machining, polishing, and
shaving.

• Examples of unproductive friction and wear are internal combustion and aircraft
engines, gears, cams, bearings, and seals.

• According to some estimates, losses resulting from ignorance of tribology amount

in the United States to about 4% of its gross national product (or about $200 billion
dollars per year in 1966), and approximately one-third of the world’s energy
resources in present use appear as friction in one form or another.
 Industrial Significance

• The purpose of research in tribology is understandably the minimization and

elimination of losses resulting from friction and wear at all levels of technology
where the rubbing of surfaces is involved.

• Research in tribology leads to greater plant efficiency, better performance, fewer

breakdowns, and significant savings.

• Since the 1800s, tribology has been important in numerous industrial applications
requiring relative motion, for example, railroads, automobiles, aircraft, and the
manufacturing process of machine components.

• Some of the tribological machine components used in these applications include

bearings, seals, gears, and metal cutting.

• Since the 1980s, other applications have included magnetic storage devices, and
micro/nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS) as well as biomedical and
beauty care products.
 Industrial Significance

Role in daily life:

• Writing is a tribological process.
• Writing is accomplished by the controlled transfer of lead (pencil) or ink (pen) to
the paper.
• During writing with a pencil there should be good adhesion between the lead and
the paper so that a small quantity of lead transfers to the paper and the lead should
have adequate toughness/hardness so that it does not fracture/break.
• The objective when shaving is to remove hair from the body as efficiently as
possible with minimum discomfort to the skin.
• Shaving cream is used as a lubricant to minimize friction between the razor and the
skin.
• Friction is helpful during walking and driving.
• Without adequate friction, we would slip and a car would skid.
• Tribology is also important in sports.
• Fabric fibers should have low friction when touching human skin.
 Industrial Significance

Role in human body:

• Body joints need to be lubricated for low friction and low wear to avoid
osteoarthritis and joint replacement.

• The surface layer of cartilage present in the joint provides the bearing surface and is
lubricated with a joint fluid consisting of lubricin, hyaluronic acid (HA) and lipid.

• Saliva and other mucous biofluids lubricate and facilitate the transport of food and
soft liquids through the body.

• The saliva in the mouth interacts with food and influences the taste–mouth feel.
 Economic Aspects

• Implementation of tribological knowledge provide economic benefits by reducing

energy loss due to friction, loss due to breakdowns, reducing depreciation of
machinery.

• Approximately 15% energy is lost through friction due to motion of pistons valve
trains, bearings etc.

• 10% is lost through friction in the gearboxes and wheel bearings.

• There are more than 700 million vehicles in world.

• Average power of engine is estimated as 30 BHP and with tribological knowledge

this can be increased by 2 to 5%.

• If we assume 2% improvement in BHP, then 420 million HP can be saved.

 Economic Aspects

• Average Iron and Steel industry allots Rs. 3-5 million for maintenance /
Replacement of bearings.

• A rough estimation indicates that 10% percent of bearing life can be improved by
better lubricant, lubricant additive, proper bearing installation.

• Implementation of tribological knowledge in iron and steel industries of India can

save 3 to 5 million rupees per year.

• Successful implementation of tribological knowledge in India can save 1 to 1.5% of

GNP ($ 3.4 Trillion) --> Rs. 1500 million.

• If 50% of this cost needs to be invested in unsuccessful trials and fruitless

hypotheses, still India will gain from practicing tribology.
 Nature of Surfaces

Importance:

• A solid surface, or more exactly a solid–gas or solid–liquid interface, has a complex

structure and complex properties dependent upon the nature of solids, the method of
surface preparation, and the interaction between the surface and the environment.

• Properties of solid surfaces are crucial to surface interaction because surface

properties affect real area of contact, friction, wear, and lubrication.

• Solid surfaces, irrespective of the method of formation, contain irregularities or

deviations from the prescribed geometrical form.

• For technological applications, both macro- and micro/nanotopography of the

surfaces (surface texture) are important.
 Nature of Surfaces

Importance contd…:
• Occasionally, there will be a greasy or oily film derived from the environment.
• These films are found both on the metallic and nonmetallic surfaces.
• The presence of surface films affects friction and wear.
• The effect of adsorbed films, even a fraction of a monolayer, is significant on the
surface interaction.
• Sometimes, the films are worn out in the initial period of running and subsequently
have no effect.
• The effect of greasy or soapy film, if present, is more marked; it reduces the
severity of surface interaction often by one or more orders of magnitude.
• An important property that must be considered is surface tension or surface free
energy.
• This affects the adsorption behavior of the surfaces.
Nature of Surfaces
 Nature of Surfaces

Deformed layer:

• In grinding, lapping, machining, or polishing, the surface layers are plastically deformed
with or without a temperature gradient and become highly strained.

• Residual stresses may be released of sufficient magnitude to affect dimensional stability.

• The strained layer is called the deformed (or work hardened) layer and is an integral part
of the material itself in the surface region.

• The deformed layer can also be produced during the friction process.

• The thickness of the lightly and heavily deformed layers typically ranges from 1 to 10
and 10 to 100 μm, respectively.

• The properties of the deformed layers can be entirely different from the annealed bulk
material.
 Nature of Surfaces

Chemically reacted layer:

• With the exception of some noble metals (such as gold and platinum), all metals and
alloys react with oxygen and form oxide layers in air.

• However, in other environments, they are quite likely to form other layers.

• The thickness of the oxide and other chemically reacted layers depends on the reactivity
of the materials to the environment, reaction temperature, and reaction time.

• Typical thicknesses of these layers range from 10 to 100 nm, although much thicker
layers can be formed.

• During the friction process, because of a rise in temperature, the chemical reaction with
the environment is accelerated.

• When a metal friction pair operates in air, the reaction may take place between the oxide
layers of the two surfaces.
 Nature of Surfaces

Physisorbed Layer:

• Adsorbed layers may be formed from the environment both on metallic or nonmetallic
surfaces.

• For example, the admission of an inert gas, such as argon or krypton, to the surface can
produce the physical adsorption of the argon to the clean surface.

• The most common constituents of adsorbate layers are molecules of water vapor,
oxygen, or hydrocarbons from the environment that may be condensed and become
physically adsorbed to the solid surface.

• This layer can be either monomolecular (about 0.3 nm thick) or polymolecular.

• Occasionally, there will also be greasy or oily film, which may partially displace the
adsorbed layer derived from the environment.

• The thickness of greasy films could be as small as 3 nm

 Nature of Surfaces

Chemisorbed Layer:

• In chemisorption, in contrast to physisorption, there is an actual sharing of electrons

or electron interchange between the chemisorbed species and the solid surface.

• In chemisorption, the solid surface very strongly bonds to the adsorption species
through covalent bonds.

• Chemisorption layer is always monomolecular.

 Surface Characterization

• The metallurgical properties (grain structure) of the deformed layer can be

determined by sectioning the surface and examining the cross section by a high-
magnification optical microscope or a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

• Microcrystalline structure and dislocation density can be studied by preparing thin

samples (a few hundred nm thick) of the cross section and examining them with a
transmission electron microscope (TEM).

• An elemental analysis of a surface layer can be performed by:

– X-ray energy dispersive analyzer (X-REDA)
– Auger electron spectroscope (AES),
– Electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA),
– Ion scattering spectrometer (ISS),
– Rutherford backscattering spectrometer (RBS),
– X-ray fluorescence (XRF).
 Surface Characterization

• The chemical analysis can be performed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

(XPS)

• The chemical analysis of adsorbed organic layers can be conducted by using

surface analytical tools, such as:
– Mass spectrometry
– Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR),
– Raman scattering
– Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Surface Characterization
Surface Characterization
Surface Characterization
 Analysis of Surface Roughness

Surface texture is the repetitive or random deviation from the nominal surface that forms the
three-dimensional topography of the surface. Surface texture includes: (1) roughness (nano
and microroughness); (2) waviness (macroroughness); (3) lay; and (4) flaws
 Analysis of Surface Roughness

• Nano- and microroughness are formed by fluctuations in the surface of short

wavelengths, characterized by hills (asperities) (local maxima) and valleys (local minima)
of varying amplitudes and spacings, and these are large compared to molecular
dimensions.

• Waviness is the surface irregularity of longer wavelengths and is referred to as

macroroughness.

• Waviness may result from such factors as machine or workpiece deflections, vibration,
chatter, heat treatment, or warping strains.

• Waviness includes all irregularities whose spacing is greater than the roughness sampling
length and less than the waviness sampling length.

• Lay is the principal direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by
the production method.

• Flaws are unintentional, unexpected, and unwanted interruptions in the texture.

 Average Roughness Parameters

• Schematic of a surface profile

 Surface Parameters (Amplitude)
• Centre line average (CLA) roughness:
 The most common designation of
roughness is the traditional roughness
average. This simply gives the average
deviation of the individual point
measurements of heights and depths from
the arithmetic mean elevation of the
profile.

• Root Mean Squared (RMS) Roughness :

 The square root of the sum of the squares
of the individual deviations from the
mean line within the sampling length.
 By involving the square of height and
depth terms, rms values are more
sensitive to occasional highs and lows in
a profile.
 In statistical analyses, the symbol is
also used for the rms surface roughness.
 Average Roughness Parameters

Symbol Name Definition

Rt Peak to valley height Separation of highest peak and lowest

valley.
Rp Peak to mean height Separation of highest peak and mean
line.
Rv Mean to valley height Separation of mean line and lowest
valley.
Rz (DIN) Average peak to valley height Average of single Rt values over five
adjoining sampling lengths.
Rz (ISO) Ten point height Separation of average of five highest
peaks and five lowest valleys within
single sampling length.
Rpm Average peak to mean height Separation of average of five highest
asperities and mean line.
 Surface Parameters (Spacing)
• Mean Peak Spacing (Sm)

 As a wavelength parameter used to characterize the spacing of peaks and

valleys, the mean peak spacing Sm is defined for a profile as the average
spacing between two successive negative crossings of the mean line.

 These spacings often characterize the surfacing process, such as shot size in
abrasive blasting, grit size of a grinding wheel, or feed of a cutting tool.
 Surface Parameters (Shape)
• Skewness
 Shape profile can be described by its asymmetry, or skewness.
 Skewness is reflected in the shape profiles.
 All have the same roughness average Ra and wavelength Sm, but the shapes
involved would be expected to provide very different performance in bearing and
seal surfaces.
 The profile of (b), for instance, would represent a good bearing surface with some
wedge action to help generate an oil film over the considerable load supporting area.
 Profile (a), on the other hand, would provide very little bearing support area on its
asperity peaks, and their sharp profile would tend to promote wear.
 Surface Parameters (Shape)
• Skewness
 Here y(x) is the surface profile, as sampled by the set of n points yi.
 According to this definition, profile (a) has positive skewness, (b) is negative, and
(c) and (d) are symmetrical around the mean line to give zero skewness.
 Negative skewness with Rsk < −1.5 often indicates a good bearing surface.
 Surface Parameters (Shape)
• Kurtosis (Peak Sharpness)
 The sharpness of the profile peaks is measured as the kurtosis parameter Rku

• The Gaussian (normal)

distribution of surface
profile peaks has a
skewness value of zero
and a kurtosis of 3.0.

• Kurtosis less than 3.0

indicates a broad, flat
distribution curve,
while a greater value
corresponds to a more
sharply peaked
distribution.
 Measurement of Surface Texture
• Contacting Methods
 Principles involved in a stylus
profilometer are illustrated in
Figure.
 As the stylus is pulled steadily over
a surface, its vertical rise and fall as
it passes over surface peaks
(asperities) and valleys is converted
into an electrical analog signal.
 Modern profilometers pass this
signal through a filter to separate
long-wavelength (waviness)
components from short-wavelength
roughness.
 The signal is then amplified for
further processing through a chart
recorder and/or digitizing for further
processing via a computer with
appropriate software.
 Measurement of Surface Texture
• Non-Contacting Methods
 Non-contacting optical methods avoid distortion and scratching of the surface, which
might otherwise occur with a diamond stylus.
 Optical microscopy, light section microscopy, and optical interferometry enable
examination and three-dimensional mapping of both very fine surface features and
surfaces which are deflected or scratched by a stylus.
 When used in combination with an array of photodiodes in an image sensor, the
surface contours can be digitized to generate a surface profile along a line on the
surface, just like a stylus profilometer.
 Alternatively, a two-dimensional array of photodiodes could be used to record
variation in height over a surface area.
 Electron microscopic methods offer better resolution and depth of field than optical
methods because of the extremely short wavelength of the electron beams.
 Optical and electron microscopic devices are invaluable in demanding studies such as
those of wear mechanisms and of fine surface features for tapes and discs in magnetic
recording.
 Measurement of Surface Flatness
 The most accurate means for measuring surface flatness is based on the light bands
interference readings emanating from a monochromatic light source, i.e. a light with a
single wavelength, .
 To use this method, the surface must be capable of reflecting light, often requiring
lapping for hard materials and polishing for soft materials.
 The instrument used for measuring flatness typically utilizes monochromatic light
source from a tube filled with helium augmented with an appropriate interference
filter.
 Measurement of Surface Flatness
 One full wavelength of yellow helium light source is 5876A˚ (23.2 μin.).
 The increment of measure for one fringe is one half of the full wavelength, i.e. 11.6
μin.
 To measure the surface flatness, the part is placed on the instrument stage under the
light source.
 An optical flat is then positioned on the surface to be checked.
 Where the optical flat touches the surface (point A), the light reflects 180◦ out of phase
so that the incoming light and the reflected light waves ‘interfere’ and a dark band
appears.
 Interference also occurs at all locations where the gap between the optical flat and
surface is one or multiple of a whole wavelength (Point B)
 Measurement of Surface Flatness
 If the gap accommodates only half of the wavelength, then the reflected light is in
phase with the incoming light and a light band appears (Point C).
 If helium light source is used, then typically one observes a series of light and dark
bands with 11.6 μin. thickness measured from center to center of each set of dark
bands.
 These bands can be used to measure deviation of the work surface from flat.
 Measurement of Surface Flatness
 To interpret the degree of flatness, consider Figure.
 If the bands for a rectangular work piece are perfectly straight and parallel to one
another, then the surface is said to be flat within 1 μ in (illustration (a)).
 In most cases, however, the light bands are curved ((b) and (c)).
 If the curvature is pointed away from the line of contact, then the part is convex.
 If the curvature is pointed toward the line of contact, the part is concave.
 Measurement of Surface Flatness
 The lack of flatness is measured by counting the number of full bands crossed by an
imaginary tangent line.
 If one full band is intersected, then the part is said to be one helium light band (11.6
μin.) out of flat.
 Similarly, if two full bands are intersected, then the part is two helium light bands
(23.2 μin.) out of flat.
Surface Texture Symbols

Surface texture symbols

 Surface Texture Symbols

Application of surface
texture values and lay
direction.
 Numerical
A rough surface has the profile of
sinusoidal nature with wavelength λ and
maximum amplitude A0. Evaluate Ra
and Rq of the profile.
 Numerical
A rough surface has the profile of
sinusoidal nature with wavelength λ and
maximum amplitude A0. Evaluate Ra
and Rq of the profile.
Thank You