GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the three main laws proposed by Edward Thorndike, and how do they
contribute to the learning process?
2. How did Thorndike develop his laws of learning, and what experiments were key
to his conclusions?
3. How can you apply in a classroom setting the B.F Skinner theory?
4. What are the impacts of behaviorism to a child's learning process?
5. How does social learning theory help in shaping personality?
6. What are the importance of perception, behavior and environment in shaping
human experience?
[Link] is Insight Learning?
8. How does Insight Learning of Kohlers Theory plays an important role in our
lives?
9. What are the three modes of representation according to Jerome Bruner’s theory
of cognitive development?
10. What factors influence the transfer of theories from one context to another?
BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING
Understanding basic learning theories is crucial for educators and learners
alike. Each theory provides different insights into how learning occurs, guiding the
development of instructional methods that cater to diverse learning styles and
needs. By integrating these theories, educators can create more effective and
inclusive learning environments.
EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE: THEORY OF LEARNING
Thorndike's theory of learning is based on the principle that learning occurs
through the association between a response and a stimulus.
The Experiment:
Puzzle Box Design: Thorndike created a wooden crate with a door that
could be opened by performing a specific action, such as pulling a string or
pressing a lever. The cat was placed inside the box, with food visible outside
as a motivator.
Objective: The aim was to observe how the cat learned to escape the box
and reach the food. Initially, the cat would try various random actions until it
accidentally triggered the mechanism that opened the door. Over time,
Thorndike observed that the cat would take less time to perform the correct
action.
1. Law of Readiness- Learning is more effective when the learner is physically
and mentally ready to perform an action. If the learner is not ready, forcing
them to perform the action can lead to frustration and poor learning
outcomes.
o Example in Experiment: If the cat was hungry and motivated by the
sight of food, it was more ready and willing to engage in the actions
needed to escape the box. However, if the cat were not hungry, it
might not be as motivated, and learning the escape behavior would be
slower or less likely to occur.
o Example in the classroom: A teacher introduces a new math
concept, such as fractions, by first reviewing basic division and
multiplication skills that students need to understand fractions. The
teacher provides a series of progressively challenging problems,
ensuring students have a solid grasp of foundational concepts before
moving on to more complex tasks.
Benefits:
• Prevents students from feeling overwhelmed and frustrated.
• Ensures a smoother learning process by building on existing knowledge.
2. Law of Exercise:
o Example in Experiment: The more times the cat was placed in the
puzzle box and successfully escaped, the more the specific behavior
(e.g., pulling the string) was reinforced. With repeated trials, the
behavior became more ingrained, and the cat's escape time decreased.
o Example in the classroom: A teacher uses daily short quizzes to
reinforce vocabulary words learned during the week. Additionally, the
teacher schedules periodic reviews of previously covered material to
ensure that students retain the information over the long term.
Benefits:
• Helps students solidify their understanding and recall of information.
• Promotes long-term retention and mastery of concepts.
3. Law of Effect: Responses that are followed by positive consequences are
more likely to be repeated, while responses that are followed by negative
consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Positive Reinforcement
o Example in Experiment: When the cat in the puzzle box successfully
pulled the string or pressed the lever to escape and obtain the food, the
satisfaction of eating the food reinforced the behavior. Over time, the
cat was more likely to repeat the specific action that led to the reward.
o Example in the classroom: A teacher implements a reward system
where students earn "star points" for demonstrating positive behaviors
like completing assignments on time, participating in class discussions,
or helping peers. At the end of each week, students can exchange their
star points for rewards such as extra recess time, homework passes, or
small prizes.
Benefits:
• Encourages students to engage in desirable behaviors.
• Increases motivation and reinforces the connection between positive actions
and rewards.
Negative Reinforcement
Classroom Application:
• Example: If students are consistently late with homework, the teacher might
implement a policy where late submissions receive a reduced grade or require
additional work to make up for the missed assignment. The idea is to
discourage tardiness by associating it with less favorable outcomes.
Benefits:
• Helps students understand the importance of meeting deadlines.
• Reduces the likelihood of procrastination and improves time management.
Thorndike's work paved the way for later behaviorists like B.F. Skinner, who
expanded on these principles in their own research.
Reference:
Structural Learning. (n.d.). Thorndike’s theory. Structural Learning.
[Link]
B.F SKINNER’S THEORY: OPERANT CONDITIONING
Concept: Behavior is influenced by its consequences. Actions followed by rewards
are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by punishments are less likely
to be repeated.
Reinforcement: Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to strengthen
behavior.
• Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to increase a behavior.
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior.
Punishment: Adding or removing something to decrease a behavior.
• Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior.
• Negative Punishment: Removing a rewarding stimulus to decrease behavior.
Examples: Adding extra chores for misbehavior, taking away a toy for bad
behavior.
Shaping Behavior
• Definition: Gradually guiding actions toward a desired behavior through
reinforcement.
• Example: Teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding successive steps.
Summary
In conclusion, B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning theory emphasizes the
significant role of consequences in shaping behavior. By understanding and applying
the principles of reinforcement and punishment, behaviors can be increased or
decreased. Positive and negative reinforcement strengthen desired behaviors, while
positive and negative punishment aim to reduce unwanted behaviors. Additionally,
the concept of shaping allows for the gradual development of complex behaviors
through successive reinforcement. This theory provides a foundational framework for
behavior modification, applicable in various fields such as education, psychology, and
animal training.
References:
B. F. Skinner. (n.d.). Department of Psychology.
[Link]
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Albert Bandura is a Canadian-American psychologist known for his
groundbreaking work in social learning theory and self-efficacy.
Social Learning Theory - is the philosophy that people can learn from each other
through 3 concepts:
⚫ Observation - We observe other people’s behavior.
Example: The child watches a parent or older sibling tie their shoes. They
observe the steps involved, like crossing the laces, looping them and pulling
tight.
⚫ Imitation- Following observation, we assimilate and imitate the observed
behavior.
Example: After observing, the child tries to copy the actions they saw,
attempting to tie their shoes in the same way.
⚫ Modeling- We are more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people we
perceive as similar to ourselves.
Example: Over time, the child refines their shoe-tying skills by repeatedly
imitating the behavior of the model. Through practice and feedback, they
eventually master the task.
The theory accounts for the interaction of environment and cognitive elements that
affects how people learn.
Social Learning Theory: a construction of socially acceptable behavior.
References:
Cherry K., MSEd (2024). [Link]
Main,P. (2022) Social Learning Theory - Bandura. [Link]
KOHLER’S THEORY
Wolfgang Köhler was a German psychologist whose research focused on human
perception. Köhler was born in Reval, Estonia in 1887.
Köhler's theory, particularly his Insight Learning Theory, is a key concept in Gestalt
psychology. The main focus of Köhler's theory is on how problem-solving and learning
occur through understanding the relationships between different elements in
asituation, rather than through trial and error.
Insight Learning - refers to the process of sudden understanding or "aha" moments
where the solution to a problem becomes immediately clear. It occurs when an
individual re organizes the problem elements in their mind and grabs the underlying
principles or connections.
Characteristics of Insight Learning
• Suddenness: The solution appears all at once,not through a series of gradual
steps.
• Comprehension of Relationships: The individual identifies the underlying
structure the problem,leading to a clear solution.
• Transferability: Once insight occurs, the solution can be applied to similar
problems.
• No Trial and Error: Unlike behaviorist learning, insight learning does not require
repeated trials but occurs after cognitive restructuring.
Summary:
In insight learning, problem-solving occurs through a sudden realization of how to
solve a problem by recognizing the relationships between the problem's components.
This theory contrasts with trial-and-error methods, emphasizing a cognitive, holistic
understanding of the problem.
Reference:
Roy, V. (n.d.). Kohler's theory of learning [PowerPoint slides]. Scribd.
[Link]
Jerome Bruner's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jerome Bruner, a renowned American psychologist, proposed a theory of cognitive
development that emphasizes the role of culture and language in shaping how
individuals think and learn. He believed that cognitive development is a continuous
process influenced by social interaction and cultural tools.
Three Modes of Representation
Bruner identified three modes of representation that individuals use to understand
the world:
1. Enactive Representation (action-based): This mode involves actions and
physical experiences. Children initially learn through doing and exploring their
environment.
2. Iconic Representation (image-based): This mode involves images and
mental pictures. Children begin to form mental representations of objects and
events.
3. Symbolic Representation (language-based): This mode involves abstract
concepts and language. Children develop the ability to think and communicate
using symbols, such as words and numbers.
Source: McLeod, S. (2024, February 1). Jerome Bruner Theory of Cognitive
Development & Constructivism. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from
[Link]
Spiral Curriculum
Bruner advocated for a spiral curriculum, which involves revisiting and expanding
upon concepts throughout a child's education. This approach allows children to build
upon their existing knowledge and understanding.
Key Principles of The Spiral Curriculum
• Cyclical: Learners must return to the same topic many times all through their
school career
• Increasing Depth: Every time a pupil returns to the concept it must explore
more complexity and be learned at a deeper level
• Prior Knowledge: A student’s previous knowledge must be used when the
learner comes back to the same concept so that he builds from the foundation
instead of starting from the beginning.
Source: Wright, J. (n.d.). The spiral curriculum: A teacher's guide. Structural Learning.
Retrieved September 9, 2024, from [Link]
curriculum-a-teachers-guide
Scaffolding
Bruner believed that adults and more knowledgeable peers can provide scaffolding
to support children's learning. This involves offering guidance and assistance,
gradually withdrawing support as the child becomes more competent.
Bruner's scaffolding involves:
1. Providing Temporary Support: Teachers offer assistance to students at
their current level of understanding, helping them to grasp new concepts and
skills. This support might include providing examples, explanations, or
prompts.
2. Gradual Withdrawal of Support: As students become more confident and
capable, the teacher gradually reduces the level of assistance. This allows
students to take on more responsibility for their learning.
3. Fading: Eventually, the teacher's support is completely removed, and
students are able to work independently on the task.
Levels of Scaffolding:
While Bruner didn't explicitly outline specific levels of scaffolding, the concept can
be understood as a continuum:
• High Scaffolding: A high level of support is provided, such as providing
step-by-step instructions or completing parts of the task.
• Medium Scaffolding: Some support is offered, such as providing hints or
examples.
• Low Scaffolding: Minimal support is given, allowing students to take more
initiative and problem-solve independently.
Source: Scaffolding in Education: A Teacher's Guide. [Structural Learning]. (n.d.).
Retrieved September 9, 2024, from [Link]
[Link]/post/scaffolding-in-education-a-teachers-guide
Transfer of Theories
Transfer of theories and ideas refers to the process of applying knowledge or
concepts from one domain to another. This can occur at various levels, from
individual learners to entire societies. It's a fundamental aspect of human learning
and development, enabling us to adapt and innovate.
Key Theories and Concepts
Theory of Identical Elements: This theory suggests that transfer occurs when
there are similar or identical elements between the original learning context and the
new one.
Source: Thorndike, E. L., & Woodworth, R. S. (1901). The influence of improvement
in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions. Psychological Review,
8(3), 247-261. [[invalid URL removed]]
Schema Theory: This theory proposes that we organize knowledge into mental
frameworks called schemas, which influence how we perceive, interpret, and recall
information.
Source: Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental social
psychology. Cambridge University Press. [[invalid URL removed]]
Situated Cognition: This theory argues that learning is deeply embedded in social
and cultural contexts, emphasizing the importance of situated learning and the
transfer of knowledge within specific communities of practice.
Source: Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral
participation. Cambridge University Press. [[invalid URL removed]]
Distributed Cognition: This theory suggests that cognitive processes are not
confined to individual minds but are distributed across individuals, artifacts, and the
environment.
Source: Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. MIT Press. [[invalid URL
removed]]
Factors Influencing Transfer
• Similarity between contexts: The more similar the original and target
contexts, the more likely transfer is to occur.
• Level of learning: Deeper understanding and mastery of a concept increase
the likelihood of transfer.
• Practice and application: Repeated practice and application of knowledge in
various contexts facilitate transfer.
• Metacognition: Awareness and regulation of one's own learning processes
can enhance transfer.