'Nikhilam Navatashcaramam Dasatah' and 'Urdhvatirgbhyam' are both used for multiplication but are applied in different contexts. Nikhilam leverages proximity to powers of ten, using extensive subtraction and addition to simplify multiplication, especially effective for numbers near these bases (e.g., 100, 1000). Conversely, Urdhvatirgbhyam achieves general applicability for any number size by vertically and crosswise multiplying digits and systematically adding results, thus offering broader utility. While Nikhilam quickly handles numbers close to base figures with minimal adjustments, Urdhvatirgbhyam is best for rapid execution across diverse number sizes, offering precision across entries irrespective of proximity to a base .

Base changes in Vedic Mathematics play a crucial role in simplifying multiplication problems by introducing a reference that aligns problematic computations to more manageable fragments. By choosing an appropriate base (such as 10, 100, 1000), numbers are treated in relation to their proximity to these friendly figures, facilitating reduction in computational complexity through deficit/excess and complement methods. Understanding this base influences decisions by prioritizing adjustments or transformations that become intuitive as arithmetic becomes reliant on fixed base intervals, enabling streamlined problem-solving and a modular approach to seemingly arduous tasks by minimizing variable operations .

In Vedic Mathematics, when subtracting large numbers, strategies for handling borrowing are centered around proactively managing the digit reduction and carry adjustment across place values. The approach involves addressing each digit from the highest to the lowest, rather than focusing sequentially from right to left. By reducing the previously higher digit and adding ten to the current unworkable digit, the process seamlessly incorporates necessary adjustments without disrupting subsequent digits. This preemptive technique eliminates iterative checking and readjustments seen in standard subtraction, reducing cognitive burden and streamlining computation, leading to improved efficiency and speed in handling large number subtractions .

The Purnapurnabhyam method in Vedic Mathematics helps in determining the complements of numbers relative to a chosen base, such as 10, 100, or 1000. This method involves finding the amount needed to reach the base from a given number, facilitating reverse calculations. For example, for the number 67 close to base 100, the complement is 33, because adding 33 to 67 reaches the base of 100. Thus, this technique assists in quickly computing the differences needed to achieve round figures, which is particularly helpful for subtraction and mental arithmetic .

The vertically and crosswise multiplication method, known in Vedic Mathematics, differs significantly from traditional methods by utilizing a more visual and intuitive process. Instead of multiplying line by line which is typical in traditional methods, the process involves multiplying vertically and crosswise and then summing the results. For instance, to multiply numbers 23 and 14, you multiply the units vertically (3×4=12), sum the cross products (2×4 + 3×1), and multiply the tens vertically (2×1), simplifying the calculation steps .

Cross addition is a key step in the Nikhilam multiplication method for numbers in the 10-range because it effectively captures significant intermediary sums that contribute to the final result. This step involves summing digits across the numbers, such as adding components from each number (10+a and 10+b) before performing digit multiplication. For example, in calculating 12 × 14, after the cross addition (12 + 4 = 16), the multiplication of units (2 × 4 = 8) seamlessly provides the complete product of 168. This step consolidates key calculations and mitigates the complexity inherent in traditional multiplication by reducing operations to smaller, simpler calculations .

The subtraction process in Vedic Mathematics addresses the issue of borrowing by approaching the calculation from the highest place value to the lowest, and incorporating a preemptive strategy for handling borrowing. When a digit at a place cannot be subtracted directly because it is smaller, Vedic Mathematics suggests reducing the preceding leftmost digit by one, effectively adding 10 to the current digit. This adjustment allows the subtraction to proceed directly without retracing steps, providing more fluid transitions. For instance, in the subtraction 725 - 468, borrowing is managed directly by converting 2 to 12 (hundreds to tens), and then recalibrating as needed .

The subtraction method using complements in Vedic Mathematics facilitates quicker calculations by replacing direct subtraction with a quick determination of numerical differences from a base. This method centers on the idea that subtraction can be simplified by finding the complement of the number being subtracted relative to a base, then adding this complement to the minuend. This process is carried out from leftmost digits downward, allowing one to handle borrowing preemptively and thus streamlining subtractive calculations. Such a concise methodology reduces the rounds of subtraction operations traditionally required, thereby minimizing opportunities for error and accelerating the overall calculation process .

The Urdhvatirgbhyam technique, or vertically and crosswise multiplication, benefits the multiplication of larger numbers by employing a structured approach that reduces the dependency on lengthy written calculations. This method multiplies directly using pairs of digits, first vertically then crosswise, combining results incrementally. Its advantage lies in systematically reducing computational errors and directly working with smaller partial products and sums, as opposed to using consecutive long multiplications acknowledged in the traditional linear approach. By circumventing these traditional steps, calculative efficiency and accuracy are enhanced, offering a marked improvement in speed and cognitive load, particularly useful for large-digit multiplication .

In Vedic Mathematics, the concept of using a base involves simplifying calculations by taking advantage of the proximity of numbers to easily handled values like 10, 100, 1000, etc. This technique involves identifying whether numbers are near these bases and then either adding or subtracting the differences that bring the numbers closer to the base. This simplifies multiplication by reducing the need to handle larger numbers directly. For example, to multiply 97 by 98, which are close to base 100, the deficits are found and cross-subtracted (97 - 2 = 95), then the deficits are multiplied (-3 * -2 = 6), resulting in a simplified and immediate answer of 9506 .