Non-Metals and Their Compounds

Introduction
• Non-metals are elements that do not exhibit typical metallic behavior.
• About 22 elements are classified as non-metals due to their physical and chemical properties.
• Most non-metals exist as gases or solids; only bromine is a liquid non-metal.
Common Non-Metals
• Gaseous Non-Metals: Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Chlorine
• Solid Non-Metals: Boron, Carbon, Silicon, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Iodine, Arsenic
• Liquid Non-Metal: Bromine
Physical Properties of Non-Metals
• Lustre: Generally lack metallic shine. Graphite and iodine may show dull shine.
• Hardness & Texture: Mostly brittle, especially in solid form. Break on hammering.
• States of Matter: Exist in all three states—solid (carbon), liquid (bromine), gas (oxygen).
• Conductivity: Poor conductors of heat and electricity. Exception: Graphite conducts
electricity.
• Melting & Boiling Points: Usually low compared to metals.
• Electronegativity: High; they tend to gain electrons, forming negatively charged ions
(anions).
Chemical Properties of Non-Metals
• Reactivity with Oxygen:
Non-metals form acidic oxides when they combine with oxygen. Some may also form
neutral oxides.
• Reactivity with Acids:
Non-metals generally do not react with dilute acids and do not release hydrogen gas.
• Reactivity with Halogens:
Some non-metals react with halogens (like chlorine) to form covalent halides.
• Reactivity with Hydrogen:
Non-metals form covalent hydrides with hydrogen (e.g., ammonia, hydrogen sulphide,
water).
Important Non-Metal:
Hydrogen (H₂)
Origin and Discovery
• Discovered by: Henry Cavendish in 1766
• Named by: Antoine Lavoisier
• Basic Nature: Colorless, odorless, tasteless, and neutral gas
• Lightest Element: Due to its very low molecular mass, it is rarely retained by Earth’s
gravity.
Atomic Structure and Classification
• Exists as Diatomic Molecule (H₂)
• Each atom has 1 proton in nucleus, no neutron, and 1 electron in orbit
• Periodic Table Confusion:
o Shows properties similar to both alkali metals (Group 1) and halogens (Group 17)
o Its placement is still controversial.
Laboratory Preparation
• Usually produced by the reaction of zinc with dilute acid
• Pure zinc is not preferred, as it reacts very slowly
• Concentrated acids are avoided, as they may produce toxic gases like sulphur dioxide
instead of hydrogen
Industrial Production Methods
• Water-Gas Process: Superheated steam passed over hot coke generates hydrogen and
carbon monoxide
• Iron-Water Reaction: Superheated steam passed over red-hot iron forms iron oxide and
hydrogen
Electrolysis of Water
• Involves decomposition of water using electric current
• Hydrogen is released at cathode, and oxygen at anode
Hydrogenation of Oils
• Vegetable oils like groundnut or coconut oil are converted to solid fats
• This is done using nickel catalyst and hydrogen gas at moderate temperature
• Industrially used to make products like vanaspati ghee
Hydrogen Absorption (Adsorption)
• Metals like platinum and palladium can absorb hydrogen up to 1000 times their own
volume
 • This is known as adsorption of hydrogen
• The adsorbed hydrogen is more reactive than free hydrogen
Applications and Significance
• Clean Energy Fuel: Hydrogen produces water on combustion, not pollutants
• Energy Rich: It releases three times more energy than petrol
• Biological Importance: Essential for body metabolism and organic compounds

Water (H₂O)
Basic Importance
• Main compound of hydrogen
• Second most essential substance for life on Earth after oxygen
• Human body is composed of about 70% water
Physical and Chemical Properties
• High Specific Heat and Surface Tension: Due to hydrogen bonding between water
molecules
• Maintains body temperature and supports climate regulation
• Excellent Universal Solvent:
o High dielectric constant (~80)
o Dissolves ionic and polar substances effectively
• Molecular Shape:
o V-shaped with a bond angle of approximately 105°
o Causes polarity in the molecule
Density Behavior
• Maximum Density at 4°C:
o Due to breaking of hydrogen bonds, water molecules come closer
o Below 4°C, volume increases due to structured ice-like arrangement
Note: At 4°C, water has maximum density and minimum volume
Hard and Soft Water

Type Cause Removal Method

Soft Water Pure water without mineral salts Naturally available or distilled

Temporary Due to bicarbonates of calcium and

Boiling or lime treatment
Hardness magnesium
Type Cause Removal Method

Permanent Due to chlorides and sulphates of Treated using washing soda, sodium
Hardness calcium and magnesium phosphate, or zeolite method

Isotopes of Hydrogen
• Protium (¹H): Most abundant, no neutron
• Deuterium (²H): Called heavy hydrogen, discovered in 1931
o Used in nuclear reactors as heavy water (D₂O)
• Tritium (³H): Radioactive isotope, produced in nuclear reactions
Hydrogen as Future Fuel
• Water is the largest source of hydrogen
• Considered the fuel of the future due to clean energy output
• Storage remains a challenge:
o Hydrogen is flammable and forms explosive mixtures with air

Silicon (Si)
Abundance & Occurrence
• Second most abundant element in Earth's crust after oxygen (~27.7% by weight).
• Found in silica (SiO₂), feldspar, mica, zeolites, and clay minerals.
Key Forms
• Silica (SiO₂): Natural crystalline forms include quartz, sand, flint.
• Silicates: Compounds with SiO₄⁴⁻ tetrahedral units; found in rocks and minerals.
• Silicon Carbide (SiC): Known as carborundum; extremely hard; used as abrasive and in
semiconductors.
Applications
• Semiconductor Industry: Base element for integrated circuits, solar panels, microchips.
• Ceramics & Glass: SiO₂ used in making glass, cement, porcelain.
• Alloys & Steel: Enhances strength, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.

Carbon (C)
Allotropy of Carbon
Carbon exists in multiple allotropic forms—same element, different structures:
Allotrope Structure Properties Use Examples

Tetrahedral Hardest known natural material, non-

Diamond Jewellery, cutting tools
lattice conductor

Hexagonal Soft, good conductor (delocalized Pencil leads, lubricants,

Graphite
layers electrons) electrodes

C₆₀, C₇₀ Drug delivery,

Fullerenes Spherical structure, molecular cage
molecules superconductors

Charcoal Amorphous Porous, high carbon content Fuel, filtration, gunpowder

Carbon-rich Metallurgical fuel (blast

Coke High heating value, abrasive
solid furnaces)

Important Compounds
• Carbon Monoxide (CO):
o Colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas.
o Binds with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, preventing oxygen transport.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂):
o Product of complete combustion.
o Used in soft drinks, refrigeration (dry ice), and fire extinguishers.
o Excess CO₂ contributes to global warming (Greenhouse Effect).
Special Highlight: Dry Ice
• Solid CO₂ formed under high pressure and low temperature.
• Sublimates directly into gas — used in preservation and theatrical fog.

Summary Table: Comparative View

Element Special Properties Key Use Area

Hydrogen Lightest, clean energy source Fuel cells, hydrogenation, reduction

Silicon Semiconductor, abundant crust element Electronics, glass, construction

Carbon Multiple allotropic forms, versatile bonds Fuels, materials, biochemistr