Chapter-10

Mechanical properties of Fluids

Fluids: A fluid is a substance that can flow. It ultimately assumes the shape of the containing vessel
because it cannot withstand shearing stress. Thus, both liquids and gases are fluids.

Difference between liquid and gas: - A liquid is incompressible and has a definite volume and a free
surface of its own. A gas compressible and it expands to occupy all the space available to it.
Type of Fluids:

1. Fluid statics or Fluid Kinematics: The branch of Physics that deals with the study of fluids at rest is
called fluid statics or hydrostatics. The branch of science deals with the Study of fluids in motion,
where pressure, forces are not considered.

2. Fluid dynamics: The branch of Physics that deals with the study of fluids in motion is called fluid
dynamics or hydrodynamics. Or the branch of science deals with the Study of fluids in motion,
where pressure, forces are considered.

Thrust: The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact with it is called Thrust.
It is because of this thrust that a liquid flows out through the holes of the containing vessel.
Ideal fluid: A fluid which is incompressible.

Pressure of the liquid: The normal force exerted by the liquid at rest on a unit area of the surface in
contact with it is called pressure of the liquid on the surface.
P =F/A
Unit: N/m2 or Pascal
Dimension: [ML -1 T-2]

PRESSURE EXERTED BY A LIQUID COLUMN

Consider a cylinder of cross-sectional area A filled with a liquid of uniform density ρ to height h. A normal
force acts on the bottom of the cylinder due to the weight of the liquid inside. Therefore pressure P exerted
by the liquid on the bottom of the cylinder is

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 P= force = F/A
Area of bottom
If m is the mass of the liquid in the cylinder, F=mg
P =mg /A
m= Volume ×density = Ah ×ρ =A h ρ
P = (A hρ ) g =hρg
A
Gauge pressure: It is the excess pressure at a depth h than atmospheric pressure.
P2 –P1 =ρ g h
Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure at a point is equal to the weight of an air column of unit
cross sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere.
At sea level,
1 atm = 1.013 × 10 5 Pa
1 bar =10 5 Pa
1 torr =10 5 Pa

Pascal’s law
It states that whenever an external pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is
transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions.

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Applications of Pascal’s law
1. Hydraulic lift 2. Hydraulic brake

Hydraulic lift

It consists of two pistons, one smaller of Area A 1 and other of larger area A2 which are separated by a
[Link] a force is applied on the smaller piston, by Pascal’s law, the pressure P1 (F1 / A 1 ) is
transmitted throughout the liquid to the larger cylinder contains the larger piston.
P1 =P2
F1 /A1 =F2/A2
F2 = (A2/A1) F1
F2 >> F1 ( since A2 >> A1)
Hence a large force is formed on the second piston by which it lifts heavy bodies.
A2/A1 =M.A

Hydraulic brake
It works under Pascal’s law. When pedal is pressed, the pressure formed is transmitted by brake oil to the
cylinder C2. So that the piston in it is pressed against brake shoes and motion of wheel is stopped. When
remove the leg from the pedal, the piston in C2, comes back to the original condition. So a small a force F1
produce a large force F2 in cylinder C2.
Since F2 = (A2 / A1) F1
A2 >> A1
F2 >> F1

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HYDROSTATIC PARADOX
• Consider 3 vessels of very different shapes (like thin rectangular shape, triangular and some filter
shape) and we have a source from which water enters into these 3 vessels.

• Water enters through the horizontal base which is the base of these 3 vessels we observe that the
level of water in all the 3 vessels is same irrespective of their different shapes.
• This is because pressure at some point at the base of these 3 vessels is same.

• The water will rise in all these 3 vessels till the pressure at the top is same as the pressure at the
bottom.

• As pressure is dependent only on height therefore in all the 3 vessels the height reached by the
water is same irrespective of difference in their shapes.

• This experiment is known as Hydrostatic Paradox.

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TYPES OF FLOW
Streamline flow/steady flow
It is a steady flow of a fluid in which at any point the velocity of each passing fluid particle remains same.

Turbulent flow
It is an unsteady flow of fluid in which at any given point the velocity of each passing fluid particle is
different.

Critical Velocity:- The velocity of a fluid flow at which streamline flow becomes turbulent is known as
critical velocity.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying thickness.

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At region I
m1 =V1 ρ ( mass = volume × density)
For a time ∆t,
∆x1= v1 ∆t ( displacement =velocity × time )
V1= A1∆x1 =A1 v1 ∆t ( Volume = Area ×displacement)
m1 =A1v1 ∆t ρ ----------(1)
At region II
m2 = A2 v2 ∆t ρ ----------(2)
A1v1 ∆t ρ =A2 v2 ∆t ρ
A1v1 =A2v2
Av = a constant
A 1/α v

For a given mass of a fluid flow, product of area of the tube and velocity of the flow of fluid is a constant.
This is called equation of continuity.
Also known as Conservation of mass in flow of incompressible fluids.
Question: Why does deep water run slow?

As the depth of water in a river or a stream increases, the area of cross section available to the flowing
water increases. Consequently velocity decreases in accordance with the equation of continuity. Thus deep
water runs slowly.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
It states that for a non- viscous fluid flowing along stream line, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic
energy per unit volume (½ ρv2) and potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remains a constant.
P+ ½ ρv2 + ρ g h = a constant
Conditions for Bernoulli’s principle:

1. Fluid should be non-viscous, incompressible

2. Flow must be streamline
3. Fluid flow through a pipe of varying width

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 II

Consider a tube through a fluid of constant mass flowing in streamline at a time ∆t.
Work done on the fluid at point at region I
W1 =F1 ∆x1
Work done by the fluid at point at region II
W2 =P2 A2 v2 ∆t
Net work done ∆W =W1-W2
∆W = (P1 A1v1 –P2A2v2) ∆t
= (P1 Av –P2 A v ) ∆t
= (P1-P2 ) A v ∆t
∆W= (P1-P2) ∆V ----------(1)
Part of this work done used for changing K.E (∆K) and rest for changing P.E (∆U)
∆K = ½ mv22 – ½ mv12
∆K = ½ ∆V ρ (v22 – v12) ---------(2)
∆U = mg ( h2 –h1 )
∆U =∆V ρ g (h2 – h1) --------------(3)
∆W =∆K +∆U
(P1-P2) ∆V = ½ ∆V ρ (v22-v12) + ∆V ρ g (h2- h1)

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P1 + ½ ρ v12 + ρ g h1 = P2 + ½ ρ v22 + ρ g h2

P+ ½ ρv2 + ρ g h = a constant
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
1. TORRICELLI’S LAW

The velocity of efflux is equal to velocity of freely falling body.

Speed of efflux means speed at which a fluid outflow through a pinhole from an open tank.
Consider an open tank with a liquid,
When we apply Bernoulli’s law in 1 and 2 regions,
At the region 1,
P1 =Pa; v1 =0; h1 =y1
P1 + ½ ρ v2 + ρ g h1 = Pa + ρ g y1
At the region 2,
P2 =Pa; v2 =v; h 2= y2
P2 + ½ ρ v22 + ρgh2 = Pa + ½ ρ v2 + ρ g y2
Hence
Pa + ρ g y1 =Pa + ½ ρ v2 + ρ g y2
g ( y1 –y2 ) = ½ v2
g h = ½ v2

v =√ 2 g h
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2. Lift of an aircraft wing

Cross section of wings of an aeroplane is same like an aerofoil. When aerofoil moves against the wind, the
streamlines of air above the wing becomes more than those below it. This means the speed of air at top of
the wing is higher than below. So there is a pressure gradient resulting in the dynamic lift of the wings
which balances the weight of the plane.

3. Magnus effect
When a ball is spinning and moving, then it will drag the air with more streamlines, sometimes at
the top, than at the bottom. When the ball is moving forward, the air is moving backward, so the
speed of air above the ball will be large. This produces a difference in pressure and there is a net
upward force on the ball. This dynamic lift due to spinning is known as Magnus effect.

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4. Venturimeter

It is a device to measure flow speed of an incompressible fluid.

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Briefly describe the working of an atomizer on the basis of Bernoulli’s Principle.

The working of an atomiser which is used to spray liquids is based on Bernoulli’s principle. When
the rubber balloon is pressed, the air rushes out of the horizontal tube B decreasing the pressure to
P2 which is less than the atm pressure P1 in the container. As a result, the liquid rises up in the
vertical tube A. When it collides with the high speed air in tube B, it breaks up into a fine spray.

Question: Why are roofs of some houses blown off during a wind storm?

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During certain wind storm or cyclone, the roofs of some houses are blown off without damaging the
other parts of the house. The high wind blowing over the roof creates a low pressure P2 in
accordance with Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure P1 below the roof is equal to the atmospheric
pressure which is larger than [Link] pressure difference ( P1- P2) causes an upward thrust and the
roof is lifted up. Once the roof is lifted up, it is blown off with the wind.

Question: Passengers are not allowed to stand near a fast moving train. Why?
It is dangerous because near the train the air moving with high speed produces a low pressure. But
behind the person standing on the platform, has atmospheric pressure which is high. This pushes the
person towards the train.
Limitations of Bernoulli’s Principle:-
1. The fluid must be non-viscous
2. The fluid should be incompressible
3. The fluid should not be turbulent. It should be in streamline
4. The fluid should be irrotational.

Viscosity

It is the property of a fluid by which it opposes the relative motion between the layers of it.
The force opposing the flow of the fluid is called viscous force. It depends upon the area of the
tube, through which liquid is flowing, velocity gradient between the layers. It is also called fluid
friction.

Coefficient of viscosity

Coefficient of viscosity for a fluid is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate.
Coefficient of viscosity = shearing stress / strain rate
η = F l/ Av
Unit = Poiseuille (P I) , Pa Sec
Dimension: [M L-1 T-1]

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Stoke’s law

When a spherical body is falling through a fluid, the viscous force on the body is given by
F= 6 π η a v.
Where ‘a’ is the radius of the body, η is the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid and ‘v’ is the speed
of the spherical body.

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Terminal velocity

It is the constant velocity with which a body falls through a viscous fluid, when the net force acting
on it is zero. (Dynamic equilibrium)
Consider a sphere of radius ‘a’, density ‘ρ’ falling through a fluid of coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ and
density of fluid ‘σ’.
When the sphere falls, weight ‘mg’ of it acts downwards. But viscous force Fv and up thrust ‘U’ act
on it upwards.
When down ward force is equal to upward force, the body moves with terminal velocity vt.

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Downward force =mg = 4/3 π a3 ρ g
According to Stoke’s law, F= 6 π η a vt
Upward force = U + Fv
= 4/3 π a3 σ g + 6π a η vt
4/3 π a3 σ g + 6π a η vt = 4/3 π a3 ρ g
6π a η vt = 4/3 π a3 ( ρ –σ ) g
vt = 2/(9η) a2 ( ρ –σ ) g

Question: Bubbles of air rises up through a liquid. Why?

The density of air is less than the density of liquid through which it rises. Terminal velocity is
negative. So, the bubbles rise up. Since terminal velocity is proportional to square of radius, smaller
bubbles are rising up slowly than bigger bubbles.
Question: What is the relation between temperature and viscosity of a liquid?

Temperature α 1/ viscosity
Temperature is inversely proportional to viscosity.
Question: Why do the machine parts get jammed in winter?
During winter, temperature decreases, viscosity increases. In summer, high viscous liquids are used
whereas in winter, low viscous liquids are used.

Question: When air is blown in between two balls, suspended close to each other, what happens to
the balls?

When air is blown, velocity of air between them increased and the pressure is decreased. On the
other side of the ball, pressure is high and the balls will be attracted towards each other.
Reynold’s number

Re = ρ v d/ η
Where ‘η’ is the coefficient of viscosity, ‘ρ’ is the density of fluid flowing with a speed ‘v’ (critical
velocity), ‘d’ is the diameter of pipe.
It is a dimensionless number whose value gives an idea about whether the flow of a fluid is
streamlined or turbulent.

Case 1: If Re is less than 1000, then the flow is streamlined.

Case 2: If Re is 1000 to 2000, then it is a steady flow.
Case 3: If Re is greater than 2000, then the flow is turbulent.

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Surface Tension
A liquid surface behaves as a stretched membrane because the molecules at the surface of the liquid
has nothing to balance, so it experiences a downward force that is why it acts as a stretched
membrane.

It is defined as the tangential force acting per unit length on a line drawn on the free surface of the
liquid. Surface tension acts perpendicular to the line and tangential to the surface.
S = F/l
Unit: N/m
Dimension: [MT-2]
Cohesive force: Force of attraction between molecules of same material.
Adhesive force: Force of attraction between molecules of different materials.

Prove that Surface energy is equal to surface tension

S P

R Q

Consider a rectangular frame PQRS in which PQ is movable. When it is dipped in soap solution, a
film is formed in it. PQ is pushed against surface tension by a small distance ‘d’.
The work done to create the new area is the surface energy.
Work done = force × displacement
=2lS×d
New area formed = 2 l d
Surface energy = Work done / New Area = (2 l S d) / ( 2 l d) = S

Surface Energy = Surface Tension

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Question: raindrops are spherical in shape. Why?
In order to reduce the surface tension, the liquid minimises its surface area. A sphere has a
minimum surface area. So water take the shape of a sphere while falling through air.
Question: Big Drops are elliptical in shape. Why?
The surface tension force in big drops is less, but force of gravity is more, to reduce centre of
gravity, they make elliptical shape.
Angle of contact
It is defined as the angle between the tangent to the liquid surface, at the point of contact and solid
surface inside the liquid.
It depends on the nature of the liquid and solid, medium above the free surface in contact. It also
depends on the temperature of the liquid.
Significance: It determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a liquid or it will form
droplets on it.
If ‘θ’ is Obtuse - droplet
If ‘θ’ is acute - spread on the surface.

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LOW SURFACE TENSION: WATER SPREAD
HIGH SURFACE TENSION: WATER FORM DROPS
Question: water on a clean glass surface spread out. But mercury forms drops. Why?
The angle of contact between water and glass is acute. So, adhesive force is more and hence they
spread out. But for mercury, angle of contact is obtuse, adhesive force is less, so they form drops.
Question: Water can be sprayed easily when soap is added. Why?
Addition of soap decreases the surface tension.
Question: Hot soup is tastier than the cold soup. Why?
When temperature increases, surface tension decreases. So, soup particles can easily pierce into
taste buds.

Derive an Expression for excess pressure inside a drop

Consider a spherical liquid drop of radius ‘r’. Let ‘S’ be the surface tension of the liquid. Due to its
spherical shape, there is an excess pressure ‘Pi’ the drop over that on outside ‘Po’. This excess
pressure acts normally outwards. Let the radius of the drop increase from r to r + ∆r under the
excess pressure Pi- Po.

Initial surface area= 4 π r2

Final surface area = 4π ( r + ∆r)2 = 4π ( r2 + 2 r ∆r + (∆r)2 ) = 4π r 2 + 8π r ∆r
∆r 2 is neglected
Increase in surface area = 4π r2 + 8π r ∆r - 4π r2 = 8π r ∆r
Work done in enlarging the drop = increase in surface area × surface tension
= 8π r ∆r S
But work done = Force × distance
W = Excess pressure × area × distance
W = ( Pi- Po) × 4π r2 × ∆r
8π r ∆r S = ( Pi- Po) × 4π r2 × ∆r

( Pi- Po) = 2 S /r
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Excess pressure inside a bubble:
Increase in surface area = 8π r ∆r
But a bubble has air both inside and outside, so it has two free surfaces.
There fore Effective increase in surface area = 2 × 8π r ∆r
= 16 π r ∆r
Work done in enlarging the bubble = Increase in surface energy
= Increase in surface area × Surface tension
= 16 π r ∆r S
But, work done = Force × distance = ( Pi- Po) × 4π r2 × ∆r
16 π r ∆r S = ( Pi- Po) × 4π r2 × ∆r

( Pi- Po) = 4 S /r

Capillarity
It is the process of rise or fall of a liquid through a tube having very small diameter.
Capillary arise and its derivation ( Ascent formula)
It is the rise of a liquid through a tube having very small diameter (due to excess pressure).
Consider a capillary tube of radius ‘a’ dipped in a liquid of surface tension ‘S’. The liquid rises due
to the excess pressure at the concave meniscus.

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 p=hρg
h ρ g = (2 S cos θ) / r

h = 2 S cos θ / r ρ g
It is known as Ascent formula ( Capillary rise)

Question: What are the factors on which capillary rise of a liquid depends?
Surface tension, angle of contact, density of the liquid and radius of the tube.
Question: Why there is a split in the nib of the pen?
The nib acts as a capillary tube. So, ink rises due to capillary whether the pen is kept up or down.
Question: When a chalk piece is dipped in water, bubbles are emitted. Why?
Chalk contains a number of capillaries filled with air. When it is dipped in water, water rises in the
capillaries and the air comes out as bubbles.
Question: In summer, cotton dresses should be preferred. Why?
The fine pores in cotton act as capillaries for the sweat.
Question: A capillary tube is dipped inn water in state of weightlessness. Will water rise in the tube?
The water will rise to the maximum height since there is no weight or downward force.
Question: Why is the pressure on the concave side of a liquid drop or bubble more than that on its
convex side?
A surface tension acts tangential to the surface of a liquid. It can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components. The horizontal components cancel. Only vertical components add together. So, there is a
resultant force which is directed towards the centre of curvature of the surface of the liquid. It acts
normal. So, in case of concave side of a liquid drop pressure will be more than convex surface. Hence
the pressure just above the concave surface will be more than just below.

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Question: Briefly describe the cleansing action of detergents.

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