ALDERSGATE COLLEGE INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

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MODULE 4:
Voltage Regulator

OVERVIEW

This module discusses the different types of voltage regulators.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss what a voltage regulator is.
2. Discuss the different types of voltage regulators of a power supply.
3. Explain operation of voltage regulator.

LEARNING FOCUS

 INTRODUCTION

In the power supply, voltage regulators play a key role. A voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage level. When a steady reliable
voltage is needed then voltage regulator is the preferred device. It generates a fixed output voltage that remains constant for any
changes in an input voltage or load conditions. It acts as a buffer for protecting components from damage.

A voltage regulator is a voltage stabilizer that is designed to automatically stabilize a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator circuit
is also used to change or stabilize the voltage level according to the necessity of the circuit. Thus, a voltage regulator is used for two
reasons:
• To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit.
• To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in-spite of variations in the supply voltage or in the load current.

Voltage regulators find their applications in computers, alternators, power generator plants where the circuit is used to control the
output of the plant. Voltage regulators may be classified as electromechanical or electronic. It can also be classified as AC regulators
or DC regulators.

An ideal power supply provides a constant dc voltage despite changes to the input voltage or load conditions. The output voltage of a
real power supply changes under load and is also sensitive to input voltage changes.

Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:

1. Line regulation – the purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly constant output voltage when the input voltage
varies.
2. Load regulation – the purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly constant output voltage when the load varies.

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 LINE REGULATION

Fig. 4.1: The line regulation.

Line regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is able to maintain the dc output voltage for a change in the ac input line
voltage. When the dc input (line) voltage changes, the voltage regulator must maintain a nearby constant output voltages.

Line regulation: A change in input (line) voltage does not significantly affect the output voltage of a regulator (within certain limits).
Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a given change in the input voltage.
 V 
Line regulation   OUT  100%
 VIN 
Δ means “a change in”

Load regulation can also be expressed in terms of percent change in 𝑉𝑜 per volt change on the 𝑉𝑖 (%/V). Line regulation can be
calculated using the following formula:

Line regulation 
VOUT / VOUT 100%
VIN

Example 4–1:
When the input to a particular voltage regulator decreases by 5 V, the output decreases by 0.25 V The nominal output is 15 V.
Determine the line regulation in %/V.

Solution:

Note: For ideal voltage regulation, both categories will give zero percent regulation (0%).

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 LOAD REGULATION

Fig. 4.2: The load regulation.

Load regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is able to maintain the dc output voltage between no load and full load with
the input voltage constant. Load regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is able to maintain the dc output voltage
between no load and full load with the input voltage constant.

Load regulation: A change in load current (due to a varying R L) has practically no effect on the output voltage of a regulator (within
certain limits).

Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL).
 V V 
Load regulation   NL FL  100%
 VFL 
where:
VNL = the no-load output voltage
VFL = the full-load output voltage

Load regulation can also be expressed in terms of percent change in the output per mA change in load current (%/mA).

𝑉𝑜(𝑁𝐿)− 𝑉𝑜(𝐹𝐿)
∆𝑉 ( )
( 𝑉 𝑜) 𝑉𝑜(𝐹𝐿)
𝑜
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 = 𝑥 100% = x 100%
∆𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐿(𝐹𝐿) − 𝐼𝐿(𝑁𝐿)

Sometimes power supply manufacturers specify the equivalent output resistance (R out) instead of its load regulation.

RFL equal the smallest-rated load resistance, then VFL:

 RFL 
VFL  VNL  
 ROUT  RFL 
Rearrange the equation:
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 R  RFL 
VNL  VFL  OUT 
 RFL 
 R  RFL 
VFL  OUT   VFL
Load regulation   RFL  100%
VFL
 R  RFL 
Load regulation   OUT  1 100%
 RFL 
R 
Load regulation   OUT  100%
 RFL 
Example 4–2:
A regulated power supply with an output resistance of 1 Ω deliver a full load current of 1 A to a 25 Ω load. What is the load
regulation?

Solution:

 TYPES OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

These regulators can be implemented through integrated circuits or discrete component circuits. Voltage regulators are classified into
two type’s namely linear voltage regulator & switching voltage regulator; these are used in wider applications. These regulators are
mainly used to regulate the voltage of a system, however, linear regulators work with low efficiency as well as switching regulators
which work through high efficiency. In switching regulators with high-efficiency, most of the i/p power can be transmitted to the o/p
without dissipation.

The linear voltage regulator is the easiest type of voltage regulator. It is available in two types, which are compact and used in low
power, low voltage systems.

The main components used in the voltage regulator are:

1. Feedback Circuit
2. Stable Reference Voltage
3. Pass Element Control Circuit

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The voltage regulation process is very easy by using the above three components. The first component of the voltage regulator like a
feedback circuit is used to detect the changes within the DC voltage output. Based on the reference voltage as well as feedback, a
control signal can be generated and drives the Pass Element to pay off the changes.

Here, pass element is one kind of solid-state semiconductor device similar to a BJT transistor, PN-Junction Diode otherwise a
MOSFET. Now, the DC output voltage can be maintained approximately stable.

Basically, there are two types of voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulator and Switching voltage regulator.
 There are two types of Linear voltage regulators: Series and Shunt.
 There are three types of Switching voltage regulators: Step up, Step down, and Inverter voltage regulators.

 LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The Linear regulator acts as a voltage divider. In the Ohmic region, it uses FET. The resistance of the voltage regulator varies with
load resulting in constant output voltage. Linear voltage regulators are the original type of regulators use to regulate the power
supplies. In this kind of regulator, the variable conductivity of the active pass element like a MOSFET or a BJT is accountable to
change the output voltage.

Once a load is allied, the changes in any input otherwise load will consequence in a difference in current throughout the transistor to
maintain the output is constant. To change the current of the transistor, it should be worked in an active otherwise Ohmic region.

Throughout this procedure, this kind of regulator dissipates a lot of power because the net voltage is dropped within the transistor to
dissipate like heat.

Two basic types of linear regulator are the series regulator and the shunt regulator. The series regulator is connected in series with
the load as shown in Fig. 4.3(a) and the shunt regulator is connected in parallel with the load as shown in Fig. 4.3(b).

Fig. 4.3: The types of linear regulator.

Advantages:
The advantages of a linear voltage regulator include the following:
a. Gives a low output ripple voltage
b. Fast response time to load or line changes
c. Low electromagnetic interference and less noise

Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of a linear voltage regulator include the following:
a. Efficiency is very low
b. Requires large space – heatsink is needed
c. Voltage above the input cannot be increased

 SERIES REGULATOR CIRCUIT

The basic connection of a series regulator circuit is shown in the block diagram of Fig. 4.4. A series voltage regulator uses a variable
element placed in series with the load. By changing the resistance of that series element, the voltage dropped across it can be
changed. And, the voltage across the load remains constant.

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The amount of current drawn is effectively used by the load; this is the main advantage of the series voltage regulator. Even when the
load does not require any current, the series regulator does not draw full current. Therefore, a series regulator is considerably more
efficient than a shunt voltage regulator.

The series element controls the amount of the input voltage that gets to the output. The output voltage is sampled by a circuit that
provides a feedback voltage to be compared to a reference voltage.

Fig. 4.4: Series regulator block diagram.

 Control element in series with load between input and output.
 Output sample circuit senses a change in output voltage.
 Error detector compares sample voltage with reference voltage causes control element to compensate in order to maintain
a constant output voltage.

 OP–AMP SERIES REGULATOR

Control Element

VREF

Sample
Error Detector Circuit

Fig. 4.5: Op–Amp series regulator circuit diagram.

 The resistor R1 and R2 sense a change in the output voltage and provide a feedback voltage.
 The error detector compares the feedback voltage with a Zener diode reference voltage.
 The resulting difference voltage causes the transistor Q1 controls the conduction to compensate the variation of the output
voltage.

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 The output voltage will be maintained at a constant value of:

 R 
Vo  1  1 VZ
 R2 
Example 4–3:
Determine the output voltage for the regulator in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6: Circuit

for Example 4-3.

Solution:
𝑅2
V𝑜 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑧
𝑅3

10 𝑘Ω
= (1 + ) 5.1 𝑉 = 10.2 𝑉
10 𝑘Ω

 TRANSISTOR SERIES REGULATOR

Fig. 4.7: Transistor series regulator circuit diagram.

 The transistor Q1 is the series control element.
 Zener diode provides the reference voltage.
 Since Q1 is an npn transistor, Vo is found as:
VBE  VZ  Vo
 the response of the pass-transistor to a change in load resistance as follows:
• If load resistance increases, load voltage also increases.
• Since the Zener voltage is constant, the increase in Vo causes VBE to decrease.
• The decrease in VBE reduces conduction through the pass- transistor, so load current decreases.
• This offsets the increase in load resistance, and a relatively constant load voltage is maintained.

Example 4–4:
Calculate the output voltage and Zener current of Fig. 4.8 for RL=1kΩ.
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Fig. 4.8: Circuit

for Example 4-4.

Solution:
Vo = Vz – VBE = 12 V – 0.7 V = 11.3 V
VCE = Vi – Vo = 20 V – 11.3 V = 8.7 V
20 V−12 V 8V
𝐼𝑅 = ( )= = 36.4 mA
220 Ω 220 Ω

For RL = 1 kΩ,
𝑉𝑂 11.3 V
𝐼𝐿 = = = 11.3 mA
𝑅𝐿 1 kΩ

𝐼𝐶 11.3 mA
𝐼𝐵 = = = 226 µA
𝛽 50

IZ = IR – IB = 36.4 mA – 226 µA ≈ 36 mA

 SHUNT REGULATOR CIRCUIT

A shunt voltage regulator provides regulation by shunting current away from the load to regulate the output voltage. Fig. 4.9 shows
the block diagram of such a voltage regulator. The unregulated input voltage provides current to the load. Some of the current is
pulled away by the control element to maintain the regulated output voltage across the load. If the load voltage tries to change due to
a change in the load resistance, the sampling circuit provides a feedback signal to a comparator, which then provides a control signal
to vary the amount of current shunted away from the load. As the output voltage tries to get larger, for example, the sampling circuit
provides a feedback signal to the comparator circuit, which then provides a control signal to draw increased shunt current, providing
less load current, thereby keeping the regulated voltage from rising.

Fig. 4.9: Block diagram of shunt voltage regulator.

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 OP–AMP SHUNT REGULATOR

Fig. 4.10: Op-Amp shunt regulator circuit diagram.

Fig. 4.10 shows a shunt voltage regulator using op-amp as voltage comparator.
 When the output voltage tries to decrease due to a change in input voltage or load current caused by a change in load
resistance, the decrease is sensed by R 1 and R2.
 A feedback voltage obtained from voltage divider R1 and R 2 is applied to the op-amp’s non-inverting input and compared to
the Zener voltage to control the drive current to the transistor.
 The current through resistor RS is thus controlled to drop a voltage across R S so that the output voltage is maintained.

 TRANSISTOR SHUNT REGULATOR

Fig. 4.11: Transistor shunt voltage regulator.

A simple shunt regulator circuit is shown in Fig. 4.11. The control element is a transistor, in parallel with the load. While, the resistor,
RS, is in series with the load. The operation of the transistor shunt regulator is similar to that of the transistor series regulator, except
that regulation is achieved by controlling the current through the parallel transistor
 Resistor RS drops the unregulated voltage depends on current supplied to load R L.
 Voltage across the load is set by Zener diode and transistor base-emitter voltage.
 If RL decrease, a reduced drive current to base of Q1  shunting less collector current.
 Load current, IL is larger, maintaining the regulated voltage across load.

The output voltage to the load is:

Vo  VL  VZ  VBE
The voltage across the load is set by the Zener diode voltage and the transistor base-emitter voltage. If the load resistance
decreases, the load current will be larger at a value of:

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VL
IL 
RL
The increase in load current causes the collector current shunted by the transistor is to be less:
IC  I S  I L
The current through RS:
Vi  VL
IS 
RS

Example 4–5:
Determine the regulated voltage and circuit currents for the shunt regulator of Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12: Circuit for Example 4-5.

Solution:

The load voltage is

VL = Vz + VBE = 8.2 V + 0.7 V = 8.9 V

For the given load,

𝑉𝐿 8.9 V
𝐼𝐿 = = = 𝟖𝟗 𝐦𝐀
𝑅𝐿 100 Ω

With the unregulated input voltage at 22 V, the current through RS is

𝑉 −𝑉 22 V− 8.9 V
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑖 𝐿 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐦𝐀
𝑅𝑆 120 Ω

So that the collector current is

IC = IS – IL = 109 mA – 89 mA = 20 mA

(The current through Zener and transistor base-emitter is smaller than IC by the transistor beta.)

 SWITCHING REGULATOR

The switching regulator is a type of regulator circuit which its efficient transfer of power to the load is greater than series and shunt
regulators because the transistor is not always conducting.

The switching regulator passes voltage to the load in pulses, which then filtered to provide a smooth dc voltage. Fig. 4.13 shows the
basic components of such a voltage regulator. The added circuit complexity is well worth for the improved operating efficiency
obtained.

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Fig. 4.13: Block representation of three-terminal voltage regulator.

The switching regulator is more efficient than the linear series or shunt type. This type regulator is ideal for high current applications
since less power is dissipated. Voltage regulation in a switching regulator is achieved by the on and off action limiting the amount of
current flow based on the varying line and load conditions. With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be achieved.

There are three types of switching voltage regulators: Step up, Step down, and Inverter voltage regulators.

 STEP-DOWN SWITCHING REGULATOR

With the step-down (output is less than the input) configuration the control element Q1 is pulsed on and off at variable rate based on
the load current. The pulsations are filtered out by the LC filter as shown in Fig. 4.14.

Fig. 4.14: Connection of step-down configuration switching regulator.

 STEP-UP SWITCHING REGULATOR

The difference is in the placement of the inductor and the fact that Q1 is shunt configured as shown in Fig. 4.15. During the time when
Q1 is off the VL adds to VC stepping the voltage up by some amount.

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Fig. 4.15: Connection of step-up configuration switching regulator.

 VOLTAGE INVERTER SWITCHING REGULATOR

In voltage inverter configuration switching regulator shown in Fig. 4.16, the output voltage is of opposite polarity of the input. This is
achieved by VL forward-biasing reverse-biased diode during the off times producing current and charging the capacitor for voltage
production during the off times. With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be achieved.

Fig. 4.16: Connection of voltage inverter configuration switching regulator.

 IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Regulation circuits in integrated circuit (IC) form are widely used.

Their operation is no different but they are treated as a single device with associated components.
These are generally three terminal devices that provide a positive or negative output.
Some types have variable voltage outputs.
A typical 7800 series voltage regulator is used for positive voltages.
The 7900 series are negative voltage regulators.
These voltage regulators when used with heatsinks can safely produce current values of 1A and greater.
The capacitors act as line filtration.
Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and switching regulators are available in integrated circuit (IC) form.
Single IC regulators contain the circuitry for:
1. reference source
2. comparator amplifier
3. control device
4. overload protection
Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices that provides either positive or negative output voltages that can be either
fixed or adjustable.

 FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage Vi applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage Vo from
a second terminal, and the third terminal connected to ground.
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Fixed-Positive Voltage Regulator

The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that provide a fixed positive output voltage.

Fig. 4.17: Connection of fixed-positive voltage regulator.

 An unregulated input voltage V1 is filtered by a

capacitor C1 and connected to the IC’s IN
terminal.
 The IC’s OUT terminal provides a regulated
+12 V, which is filtered by capacitor C2.
 The third IC terminal is connected to ground
(GND).

Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 78XX Series:

IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum Vi (V)

7805 +5 +7.3
7806 +6 +8.3
7808 +8 +10.5
7810 +10 +12.5
7812 +12 +14.5

7815 +15 +17.7

7818 +18 +21.0

7824 +24 +27.1

Fixed-Negative Voltage Regulator

The series 79XX regulators are the three-terminal IC regulators that provide a fixed negative output voltage.
This series has the same features and characteristics as the series 78XX regulators except the pin numbers are different.

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Fig. 4.18: Connection of fixed-negative voltage regulator.

Negative-Voltage Regulators in the 79XX Series:

IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum V (V)
i

7905 -5 -7.3
7906 -6 -8.4
7908 -8 -10.5
7909 -9 -11.5
7912 -12 -14.6

7915 -15 -17.7

7918 -18 -20.8

7924 -24 -27.1

 ADJUSTABLE-VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulators are also available in circuit configurations that allow to set the output voltage to a desired regulated value.
The LM317 is an example of an adjustable-voltage regulator, can be operated over the range of voltage from 1.2 to 37 V.

Fig. 4.19: Connection of adjustable-voltage regulator.

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