explain everything about Mathematics and make a
complete notes of chemistry with definitions,
Examples and solutions. And imagine that you are
teaching in simple and easy terms so i can
understand it and with examples of it
Based on the NEB Class 12 Mathematics curriculum and my research, I'm now going to create
comprehensive mathematics notes in simple, easy-to-understand language with definitions,
examples, and solutions for your re-examination preparation. [1] [2]
Complete Mathematics Notes for Class 12 NEB
Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, patterns, and relationships. It's a language
that helps us solve real-world problems using logic and reasoning. Think of it as a toolkit where
each chapter teaches you a different tool to use. [3]
ALGEBRA - Part 1
Permutation and Combination
These are techniques to count arrangements and selections of objects.
Permutation (P) [1]
Definition: An arrangement of objects where the order matters. Different arrangements of the
same objects are counted separately.
Think about it: Arranging people in a line. If you have 3 people (A, B, C), arranging them as A-B-
C is different from B-A-C.
Formula: $ P(n,r) = \frac{n!}{(n-r)!} $
Where:
n = total objects
r = objects to arrange
! = factorial (multiply all numbers down to 1)
Example 1: How many ways can 3 people sit in a row?
Solution:
We have 3 people and need to arrange all 3
$ P(3,3) = \frac{3!}{(3-3)!} = \frac{3!}{0!} = \frac{3 \times 2 \times 1}{1} = 6 $
Answer: 6 ways (ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA) [1]
Example 2: Select and arrange 2 people from 5 for president and vice-president
Solution:
$ P(5,2) = \frac{5!}{(5-2)!} = \frac{5!}{3!} = \frac{5 \times 4 \times 3!}{3!} = 5 \times 4 = 20
$
Answer: 20 ways [1]
Combination (C) [1]
Definition: A selection of objects where the order doesn't matter. Selecting the same objects
in different orders counts as one.
Think about it: Selecting 2 fruits from a basket. Selecting apple-orange is the same as selecting
orange-apple.
Formula: $ C(n,r) = \frac{n!}{r!(n-r)!} $
Example 1: Select 2 people from 5 for a committee
Solution:
$ C(5,2) = \frac{5!}{2!(5-2)!} = \frac{5!}{2! \times 3!} = \frac{5 \times 4}{2 \times 1} = 10 $
Answer: 10 ways [1]
Example 2: In how many ways can you choose 3 books from 8 books?
Solution:
$ C(8,3) = \frac{8!}{3!(8-3)!} = \frac{8!}{3! \times 5!} = \frac{8 \times 7 \times 6}{3 \times 2
\times 1} = \frac{336}{6} = 56 $
Answer: 56 ways [1]
Key difference to remember:
Permutation: Arranging a team of players for positions (order matters)
Combination: Choosing team members (order doesn't matter) [1]
Binomial Theorem [1]
Definition: A formula that expands expressions like without multiplying them out
manually.
Formula: $ (a+b)^n = \sum_{r=0}^{n} C(n,r) a^{n-r} b^r $
This looks complex, but it means: break down into terms using combinations.
Understanding Binomial Expansion
When you expand :
Manually:
Using Binomial Theorem: $ C(2,0)a^2 + C(2,1)ab + C(2,2)b^2 = 1 \cdot a^2 + 2 \cdot ab + 1
\cdot b^2 $ [1]
Example 1: Expand
Solution:
Using formula with :
$ (x+2)^3 = C(3,0)x3(2)0 + C(3,1)x2(2)1 + C(3,2)x1(2)2 + C(3,3)x0(2)3 $
$ = 1 \cdot x^3 \cdot 1 + 3 \cdot x^2 \cdot 2 + 3 \cdot x \cdot 4 + 1 \cdot 1 \cdot 8 $
$ = x^3 + 6x^2 + 12x + 8 $
Verification: Multiply manually: ✓ [1]
Example 2: Find the middle term in
Solution:
When n is even, middle term is at
Middle term = $ C(6,3)a{6-3}b3 = 20a3b3 $ [1]
Complex Numbers [1]
Definition: Numbers that include the imaginary unit , where .
Standard Form: $ z = a + bi $
Where:
a = real part
b = imaginary part
i = imaginary unit ( )
Think about it: Normal numbers (1, 2, 3) can't give you the square root of negative numbers.
Complex numbers fix this problem.
Basic Operations
Adding Complex Numbers: Add real and imaginary parts separately
Example: $ (3+2i) + (1+4i) = (3+1) + (2+4)i = 4 + 6i $ [1]
Multiplying Complex Numbers: Use FOIL method
Example: $ (2+3i)(1+2i) $
$ = 2 \cdot 1 + 2 \cdot 2i + 3i \cdot 1 + 3i \cdot 2i $
$ = 2 + 4i + 3i + 6i^2 $
$ = 2 + 7i + 6(-1) $ (since )
$ = 2 + 7i - 6 = -4 + 7i $ [1]
Dividing Complex Numbers: Multiply by conjugate
Formula: To divide , multiply both by
Example: $ \frac{2+3i}{1+2i} $
Multiply by
$ = \frac{(2+3i)(1-2i)}{(1+2i)(1-2i)} = \frac{2-4i+3i-6i2}{1-4i2} = \frac{2-i+6}{1+4} = \frac{8-i}
{5} $ [1]
Powers of i
This is important to memorize:
(pattern repeats) [1]
Example: Find
Solution:
Divide 27 by 4:
Remainder is 3, so [1]
Quadratic Equations [1]
Definition: An equation of the form $ ax^2 + bx + c = 0 $ where .
Think about it: These are U-shaped curves. The equation tells you where the curve crosses the
x-axis (the solutions).
Methods to Solve
Method 1: Factoring (Easiest when possible)
Example: $ x^2 + 5x + 6 = 0 $
Solution:
Factor:
Solutions: or [1]
Method 2: Quadratic Formula (Works always)
$ x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a} $
Example: $ 2x^2 - 5x + 3 = 0 $
Solution:
$ x = \frac{-(-5) \pm \sqrt{(-5)^2 - 4(2)(3)}}{2(2)} $
$ x = \frac{5 \pm \sqrt{25-24}}{4} = \frac{5 \pm \sqrt{1}}{4} = \frac{5 \pm 1}{4} $
$ x = \frac{6}{4} = 1.5 $ or $ x = \frac{4}{4} = 1 $ [1]
Discriminant (The term under the square root)
$ D = b^2 - 4ac $
What it tells you:
D > 0: Two different real solutions
D = 0: One repeated real solution
D < 0: Two complex solutions (no real solutions) [1]
Example: $ x^2 + x + 1 = 0 $
Solution:
$ D = 1^2 - 4(1)(1) = 1 - 4 = -3 < 0 $
This equation has no real solutions (only complex ones) [1]
Sequence and Series [1]
Definition:
Sequence: A list of numbers following a pattern (1, 2, 3, 4,...)
Series: The sum of a sequence (1+2+3+4+...)
Arithmetic Sequence
Definition: A sequence where each term differs by a constant amount (common difference )
General term: $ a_n = a_1 + (n-1)d $
Example: Find the 10th term of 2, 5, 8, 11, ...
Solution:
First term
Common difference
$ a_{10} = 2 + (10-1) \times 3 = 2 + 27 = 29 $
Answer: 29 [1]
Arithmetic Series (Sum)
Sum formula: $ S_n = \frac{n}{2}(a_1 + a_n) $ or $ S_n = \frac{n}{2}[2a_1 + (n-1)d] $
Example: Find the sum of first 10 terms of 2, 5, 8, 11, ...
Solution:
$ S_{10} = \frac{10}{2}(2 + 29) = 5 \times 31 = 155 $ [1]
Geometric Sequence
Definition: A sequence where each term is multiplied by a constant ratio (common ratio )
General term: $ a_n = a_1 \times r^{n-1} $
Example: Find the 6th term of 2, 6, 18, 54, ...
Solution:
First term
Common ratio
$ a_6 = 2 \times 3^{6-1} = 2 \times 3^5 = 2 \times 243 = 486 $
Answer: 486 [1]
Geometric Series (Sum)
Sum formula: $ S_n = a_1 \frac{r^n - 1}{r - 1} $ (when )
Example: Find the sum of first 5 terms of 2, 6, 18, ...
Solution:
$ S_5 = 2 \times \frac{3^5 - 1}{3-1} = 2 \times \frac{243-1}{2} = 2 \times \frac{242}{2} =
242 $ [1]
MATRICES - System of Linear Equations [1]
Definition: A rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
Simple representation:
$A=
$
This matrix has 2 rows and 3 columns (called 2×3 matrix).
Matrix Operations
Adding Matrices: Add corresponding elements
Example:
$
$
[1]
Multiplying Matrices: Row × Column method (more complex, requires memorizing rules)
Solving Systems of Linear Equations with Matrices
What is it? A system like:
In matrix form:
$
$
This is written as: , where X = [1]
Example: Solve using matrices
Solution:
From equation 2:
Substitute in equation 1:
Answer: x = 2, y = 1 [1]
TRIGONOMETRY [1]
Basic Trigonometric Ratios
Think about it: In a right triangle, trigonometry describes relationships between angles and
sides.
Three main ratios for an angle θ:
$ \sin\theta = \frac{Opposite}{Hypotenuse} $
$ \cos\theta = \frac{Adjacent}{Hypotenuse} $
$ \tan\theta = \frac{Opposite}{Adjacent} $
Acronym: SOH-CAH-TOA (helps remember)
Memory Trick
Sine = Opposite/Hypotenuse (climb up the ladder: O-H)
Cosine = Adjacent/Hypotenuse (climb up the ladder: A-H)
Tangent = Opposite/Adjacent (O-A)
Example: In a right triangle with angle 30°, if opposite side = 5 and hypotenuse = 10
Solution:
✓ (This is correct!) [1]
Inverse Trigonometric Functions [1]
Definition: Functions that find the angle when you know the ratio.
Notation: (note: this is NOT 1/sin, but "inverse sine")
Example: If , find θ
Solution:
(or π/6 radians) [1]
Trigonometric Equations [1]
Definition: Equations containing trigonometric functions that you need to solve for angles.
General solution concept: Trigonometric functions repeat every 360° (2π radians), so
equations have multiple solutions.
Example: Solve for
Solution:
First solution:
Second solution (in another quadrant):
Answer: θ = 30° or 150° [1]
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY [1]
Conic Sections
Definition: Curves formed by slicing a cone at different angles. Four main types:
1. Circle
Definition: All points equidistant from a center.
Standard form: $ (x-h)^2 + (y-k)^2 = r^2 $
Where is center, is radius.
Example: Write equation of circle with center (2,3) and radius 5
Solution:
[1]
2. Parabola
Definition: All points equidistant from a point (focus) and a line (directrix).
Standard forms:
Vertical:
Horizontal:
Example: Write equation of parabola with vertex (0,0) and focus (0,2)
Solution:
, so [1]
3. Ellipse
Definition: All points where sum of distances to two foci is constant.
Standard form: $ \frac{x2}{a2} + \frac{y2}{b2} = 1 $
Example: Write equation of ellipse with semi-major axis 5 and semi-minor axis 3
Solution:
$ \frac{x^2}{25} + \frac{y^2}{9} = 1 $ [1]
4. Hyperbola
Definition: All points where difference of distances to two foci is constant.
Standard form: $ \frac{x2}{a2} - \frac{y2}{b2} = 1 $
Example: Write equation of hyperbola with a = 3, b = 4
Solution:
$ \frac{x^2}{9} - \frac{y^2}{16} = 1 $ [1]
Coordinates in Space [1]
Definition: Describes points in 3D using three coordinates (x, y, z).
Distance formula between two points:
$ d = \sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2 + (z_2-z_1)^2} $
Example: Find distance between (1,2,3) and (4,5,6)
Solution:
$ d = \sqrt{(4-1)^2 + (5-2)^2 + (6-3)^2} = \sqrt{9+9+9} = \sqrt{27} = 3\sqrt{3} $ [1]
VECTORS [1]
Definition: Quantities that have both magnitude (size) and direction.
Notation: or
Think about it: Wind has both speed (magnitude) and direction (north, south, etc.). That's a
vector.
Vector Operations
Addition: Combine vectors end-to-start
Example:
$ \vec{a} + \vec{b} = (2+1, 3+4) = (3,7) $ [1]
Dot Product (Scalar Product): Multiply and get a single number
Formula:
Example:
$ \vec{a} \cdot \vec{b} = (1)(4) + (2)(5) + (3)(6) = 4+10+18 = 32 $ [1]
Cross Product (Vector Product): Multiply and get another vector (3D only)
This is more complex and has specific rules for calculation. [1]
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY [1]
Correlation and Regression
Correlation: Measures how strongly two variables are related.
Correlation coefficient (r): Ranges from -1 to +1
+1: Perfect positive correlation (both increase together)
0: No correlation
-1: Perfect negative correlation (one increases, other decreases)
Example: Height and weight have positive correlation (taller people usually weigh more).
Regression: Finding a line that best fits data points.
Linear regression equation: $ y = a + bx $
Where a is y-intercept and b is slope. [1]
Probability [1]
Definition: Measure of how likely an event is to happen, ranging from 0 to 1.
Formula: $ P(event) = \frac{Number of favorable outcomes}{Total number of outcomes} $
Example: Probability of rolling a 3 on a die
Solution:
Favorable outcomes: 1 (just the number 3)
Total outcomes: 6 (numbers 1-6)
$ P = \frac{1}{6} \approx 0.167 $ or about 16.7% [1]
Types of Probability:
Mutually exclusive events: Cannot happen together (heads OR tails)
Independent events: One doesn't affect the other (flip coin twice)
Conditional probability: Probability of event A given that event B happened
$ P(A|B) = \frac{P(A and B)}{P(B)} $ [1]
CALCULUS [1]
Limits and Continuity
Limit: What value a function approaches as x gets closer to a specific point
Definition: means f(x) gets closer to L as x approaches a.
Example:
As x gets closer to 2, the function gets closer to 5. [1]
Continuity: A function is continuous if there are no breaks or jumps in the graph.
Intuitively, you can draw it without lifting your pencil. [1]
Derivatives [1]
Definition: The rate of change of a function at a specific point. The slope of the tangent line.
Think about it: If you're driving, derivative tells you your speed (rate of change of distance).
Notation: or
Basic Derivative Rules
Power Rule:
Example: Find derivative of
Solution:
[1]
Example: Find derivative of
Solution:
Each term is differentiated separately. [1]
Constant Rule: (derivative of constant is 0)
Sum Rule:
Product Rule: (more complex)
Chain Rule: (for composite functions)
Application of Derivatives
Finding maximum and minimum:
Take derivative
Set (find critical points)
Check second derivative to determine if max or min
Example: Find minimum of
Solution:
Set to 0:
Minimum value:
Minimum is at point (2, 1) [1]
Anti-derivatives (Indefinite Integrals) [1]
Definition: The reverse process of differentiation. If derivative of F is f, then anti-derivative of
f is F.
Notation:
Where C is the constant of integration (because derivative of any constant is 0).
Basic Anti-derivative Rules
Power Rule: (when )
Example:
Constant Multiple Rule:
Example:
[1]
Definite Integrals (Area Under Curve)
Notation: (from a to b)
How to calculate:
1. Find anti-derivative F(x)
2. Evaluate:
Example:
Solution:
Anti-derivative:
[1]
Differential Equations [1]
Definition: An equation containing a function and its derivatives.
Simple form:
How to solve: Integrate both sides
Example:
Solution:
Integrate both sides:
Answer: [1]
LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS (LPP) [1]
Definition: Finding the maximum or minimum value of a function subject to certain constraints.
Think about it: A factory wants to maximize profit while limited by available materials and
workers.
Components:
1. Objective function: What you want to maximize/minimize
2. Constraints: Limitations you must follow
3. Variables: Things you're trying to optimize
Example: A factory makes tables and chairs
Table profit: Rs. 100
Chair profit: Rs. 50
Maximum wood available: 40 units
Table needs 2 units wood, Chair needs 1 unit wood
Find combination that maximizes profit
Solution approach:
1. Define variables: x = tables, y = chairs
2. Objective: Maximize
3. Constraint:
4. Find vertices of feasible region
5. Test each vertex to find maximum [1]
KEY FORMULAS SUMMARY
Topic Formula Use
Permutation Arrangements where order matters
Combination Selections where order doesn't matter
Arithmetic Mean Sum of arithmetic sequence
Geometric Mean Sum of geometric sequence
Quadratic Formula Solving quadratic equations
Distance Distance between two points
Circle Equation of circle
Probability Likelihood of event
Derivative Rate of change
Integral Anti-derivative
^1
Tips for NEB Mathematics Exams
1. Practice problems regularly — Mathematics requires hands-on practice, not just reading
[1]
2. Master the formulas — Know which formula to use when [1]
3. Show all steps — Examiners award partial marks for correct procedure even if final answer
is wrong [1]
4. Understand concepts deeply — Don't memorize blindly; understand WHY formulas work [1]
5. Practice previous year papers — Helps you understand question patterns [1]
6. Create formula sheets — Write formulas on paper while studying (helps memory) [1]
7. Group similar topics — Study permutation with combination, arithmetic with geometric
sequences [1]
8. Use graph paper for geometry — Accurate drawings help solve coordinate geometry
problems [1]
This comprehensive mathematics guide covers all major topics in NEB Class 12 curriculum. The
key to success in mathematics is consistent practice and deep understanding of concepts.
Start with easier topics (like permutation-combination) and gradually move to harder ones (like
calculus). Create your own solved examples for topics you find difficult. Your chemistry
preparation journey shows you have the discipline to succeed in mathematics too! [1]
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