THE INTERNET
The internet is composed of thousands of
interconnected networks.
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our
daily lives. It has affected the way we do business as
well as the way we spend our free time.
The Internet is a communication system that has
brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use.
1.1
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
1.2
PROTOCOLS
Rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively.
It consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications. It determines
•what is communicated,
•how it is communicated
•and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing.
1.3
Elements of a Protocol
■ Syntax
■ Structure or format of the data
■ Indicates how to read the bits
■ Semantics
■ Interprets the meaning of the bits
■ Knows which fields define what action
■ Timing
■ When data should be sent and what
■ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.
1.4
PROTOCOL
LAYERING
Simple Communication: only one simple protocol
Complex Communication, we need a protocol at each
layer, or Protocol Layering
1.5
LAYERED
TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life.
As an example, let us consider two friends
who communicate through postal mail. The
process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available
from the post office.
2.6
Protocol Layering - Example Scenario 1
1.7
Protocol Layering - Example Scenario 2
1.8
Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.9
Protocol Layering - Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages
✔ Modularity
✔ Separation of Service & Implementation
✔ Reduced Complexity & Cost
• Disadvantages
✔ None Really!
1.10
Protocol Layering - Principles
• Two Principles
✔ Bidirectional Communication Each Layer
performs two opposite tasks in each direction
✔ Two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical
1.11
THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with
open systems, i.e. systems open for
communications with other systems.
2.12
Note
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
2.13
Message Transmission Using Layers
14
Seven layers of the OSI model
User
Level
impleme
ntation
OS
kernel
level
2.15
Seven layers of the OSI model
Please Do Not Touch Steve's Pet Alligator
Alligator
Pet
Steve's
Touch
Not
Do
Please
2.16
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2.17
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Message
Data formatting
Communication
management
Segment
Packet
Framing
Transmission of raw
bits
2.18
Layer 7: Application Layer
■ Level at which applications access network
services.
■ Represents services that directly support
software applications for file transfers,
database access, and electronic mail etc.
■ Closest to the end user.
■ Browser, Email - DHCP, HTTP, HTTPs, FTP
Application layer
2.20
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
■ Related to representation of transmitted
data
■ Translates different data representations
from the Application layer into uniform
standard format
■ Providing services for secure efficient
data transmission
■ e.g. data encryption, and data compression.
Presentation layer
2.22
Layer 5: Session Layer
■ Allows two applications on different
computers to establish, use, and end a
session (Browser Tabs).
■ e.g. file transfer, remote login
■ Establishes dialog control
■ Regulates which side transmits, plus when and how
long it transmits.
■ Performs token management and
synchronization.
Session layer
2.24
Layer 4: Transport Layer
■ Manages transmission packets
■ Repackages long messages when necessary
into small packets for transmission
■ Reassembles packets in the correct order to
get the original message.
■ Handles error recognition and recovery.
■ Transport layer at receiving acknowledges
packet delivery.
■ Resends missing packets
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.26
Transport layer
2.27
Layer 3: Network Layer
■ The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.
■ Addresses messages and translates logical
addresses and names into physical addresses.
■ Determines the route from the source to the
destination computer
■ Manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing,
and controlling the congestion of data packets.
■ Segmentation
■ Flow Control
■ Reliable and Unreliable Data (TCP, UDP)
Network layer
2.29
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
∙ The data link layer is responsible for
moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.
∙ Provides reliable transmission of frames
∙ It waits for an acknowledgment from the
receiving computer.
∙ Retransmits frames for which
acknowledgement not received
Hop-to-hop delivery
2.31
Data link layer
2.32
Layer 1: Physical Layer
■ Transmits bits from one computer to another
■ Regulates the transmission of a stream of bits
over a physical medium.
■ Defines how the cable is attached to the network
adapter and what transmission technique is used
to send data over the cable. Deals with issues
like
■ The definition of 0 and 1, e.g. how many volts
represents a 1.
■ Whether the channel is simplex or duplex?
■ How many pins a connector has, and what the
function of each pin is?
Physical layer
2.34
An exchange using the OSI model
2.35
Summary of layers
2.36
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
2.37
TCP/IP and OSI model
2.38
ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.
2.39
Addresses in TCP/IP
2.40
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.41
Example
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
2.42
Physical addresses
2.43
Example 2.2
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
2.44
Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
2.45
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
2.46
Example 2.4
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the
Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
2.47
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
2.48
Note
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
2.49