World Atlas

Addis Ababa University

Chapter 2
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

By: Elias Shiferaw

November ,6,2024

18 November 2024 Elias Shiferaw 2

 Questions Reflection

 Discuss in small group and reflect back to the class ( take 15 minutes)

1) What is continental Drift Theory and list down the 7 continents of

the Earth highlighting their peculiar features

2) What are the 4 Geological era of the Earth?

3) What is central theme of Continental Drift Theory ?

4) What is the difference between External and Internal geological

forces? and give examples for each.

 What is Geology
Geology is an Earth science that studies the evolution, history, the
materials of which it is made of, and the processes acting upon them.
Geomorphology: is an earth science that deals about landforms and
forces responsible for changing the surface of the earth.
The earth's continents were once bunched up together in to a single
huge continent called Pangaea.
 The large super continent was then split into Gondwanaland and
Laurasia.
 Gondwanaland split in to Africa, South America, Antarctica,
Australia, Indian subcontinent and Arabian peninsula while
Laurasia split in to Europe, North America and Asia during
Mesozoic era some 300 million years ago
 Now there are 7 continents on Earth. Namely Asia. Africa, North
America, South America, Antarctica, Europe and Australia/
Oceania in their descending order of size.
Major Continents of the World and Their Areal Size
 Continental Drift Theory
 Proposed by Alfred Wegener,(1912.) Germany Scientist suggesting that
continents were once part of a singular supercontinent called Pangaea, which
later broke apart in to different continents.
 Pangaea began to break apart about 200 million years ago, leading to the
formation of today's continents.
Evidence Supporting the Theory
 Fossil Evidence: Similar fossils found on continents that are now separated by
oceans
 Geological Evidence: Similar rock formations and mountain ranges on different
continents (e.g., Appalachian Mountains in the USA and Caledonian mountains
in Scotland).
 Paleoclimatic Evidence: Geological formations, such as glacial deposits, found
in currently warm regions suggest past climatic similarities when continents
were joined.
 Fit of Continents: Coastlines of continents (e.g., South America and Africa) fit
together like puzzle pieces.
 Criticisms of the Theory
 Lack of Mechanism: Wegener could not explain how continents moved.
 Geological Acceptability: The theory was initially dismissed by many
geologists because of the absence of a clear driving force.
Evolution of the Theory
 Plate Tectonics: In the 1960s, the theory was refined with the development of
the Plate Tectonics theory, which provided a mechanism movement of tectonic
plates driven by mantle convection. Which facilitates the movement of
tectonic plates floating on its surface, leading to geological phenomena such as
earthquakes, volcanic activity, and mountain building
The Significance
 Impact on Geology: The Continental Drift Theory laid the foundation for
modern geology and our understanding of Earth's dynamic nature.
 Insights into Natural Disasters: Helps explain the distribution of earthquakes,
volcanoes, and mountain-building.
Table: Geological Time Scale Overview

Began (in End (in Million

Era Period Major Events
Million Years) Years)
Major glaciations affecting
Cenozoic Quaternary 1.6 Present
landscapes
Rocky Mountains formation;
Tertiary 70 1.6
continents taking shape
Dinosaurs became extinct; inland
Mesozoic Cretaceous 146 70
seas emergence
Jurassic 208 146 Breakup of Pangaea begins
Paleozoic Permian 290 225 Largest extinction event recorded
Precambrian Proterozoic 2,500 600 Earliest multicellular life forms
 Age Dating Technique
Relative Dating
Fossil Correlation: Identifying fossils unique to specific periods helps determine
the relative age of rock layers.
Superposition: In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest rocks are on the bottom and
younger rocks are on top.
Absolute Dating
Techniques Overview:
Developments in radiometric dating allow for actual age determination.
Common Techniques:
Carbon-14 Dating:
Half-life: 5,730 years.
Effective for dating organic remains up to about 50,000 years old.
Potassium-Argon Dating:
 Potassium-Argon Technique: The decay is widely used for dating rocks.
 Geologists are able to date entire rock samples in this way as potassium-40 is
abundant in micas, feldspars, and hornblendes.
 Only applicable to certain rock types; not useful for sedimentary rocks.
 Primarily used on volcanic rocks and ash layers.
 Effective for dating geological events from thousands to billions of years.
 The Geologic Processes: External/ Exogenic Forces
 The Geological processes are divided into two major groups:
internal/Endogenic and external/exogenic forces
 External forces are the forces that act upon the earth's surface from
outside and level the ups and downs of the earth's surface.
 External forces include erosion, Weathering and deposition.
 Erosion is the transporting of weathered material by various natural
forces such as moving water, wind and moving ice.
 Deposition: is the condition where by the land rises due agents of
erosions. Erosion the final result of erosion
 Weathering: Is the process in which involves the disintegration of
rocks in to smaller pieces of units due to various agents.
 Agents of Erosion
Agents of erosion: are factors causing erosion. Eg. Running water,
Wind, glacial, sea waves
Running water: is most common agent of erosion in areas where
there is heavy rainfall
Wind: is most active erosional agent in desert areas where there is no
vegetation cover.
Types of Running Water Erosion: Sheet Erosion, Gulley erosion and
Rill erosion
Glacial: is very common mode of erosion in polar areas where there is
sheet of ice
Sea wave: is common in coastal areas which are closer to seas and
oceans
 Internal / Endogenic Forces
 Internal forces are sometimes called endogenic forces. They drive
energy from the interior part of the earth.
 External forces of the Earth include Folding, Faulting , volcanism
and Earthshaking.
 Folding/Bending occurs when rock layers are pushed by the earth
movement from one or two sides. The process of folding is the
result of compressional force.
 Fold mountains are formed due to folding of the earth. e.g Rocky,
Andes, Alps. Himalaya, Atlas, Cape Range etc.
 Faulting/Cracking : takes place when tectonic pressure causes
rock masses to push together or pull apart.
 Cont…
 The basins occupied by the Red sea, and the great "rift valleys"
of East Africa are the results of faulting.
 Volcanism: is the process by which molten rock (magma) is forced
out to the surface of the earth.
 An earthquake is an unpredictable event in which masses of rock
shift below the earth's surface, releasing enormous energies.
 An earthquake is the result of the sudden release of stored energy in
the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
 Earthquakes are accordingly measured with a seismometer,
commonly known as a seismograph.
 The Geological Time Scale
 The geological history is divided in to Eras. Each Era is divided
into periods.
 The Eras are given names that indicate the kind of life that existed
in them. For instance, the Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the age of
invertebrates, the Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is the age of
reptiles while the Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age of
mammals.
 The Earth is believed to have been formed approximately 4.5
billion years ago
 The geological time scale measures time on a scale involving four
main units:
 Geological Time Scales
1. An epoch is the smallest unit of time on the scale and encompasses a period of
millions of years.
2. Epochs are clumped together to form periods.
3. Periods are combined to make subdivisions Eras.
4. Eras are combined to make an eon
Eon: is the largest period of geological time scale .
Chronologically Eon Era Period Epoch
The Earth's history is divided in to 4 major eras namely Precamreuim, palaeazoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.
Eon: Billions of years
Era: Tens to hundreds of millions of years
Period: Tens of millions of years
Epoch: Millions of years
 The Geologic History of Ethiopia: An Overview of Geological
Processes
Overview of Geological Eras in Ethiopia
•Geologic Time Scale:
• Precambrian Era: 4.5 billion - 600 million years ago (5/6ths of Earth's
history).
• Paleozoic Era: 600 million - 225 million years ago (375 million years).
• Mesozoic Era: 225 - 70 million years ago (155 million years).
• Cenozoic Era: 70 million years ago - Present (most recent era).
The Precambrian Era (4.5 billion - 600 million years ago)
Timeframe: Encompasses about 83,4 % of Earth's total geological time.
Geological Significance:
• Lack of well-preserved fossils complicates understanding; much of the
evidence comes from rock formations.
 Key Geological Processes:

Orogenesis:
 Series of mountain-building events resulted from tectonic plate convergence.
Formation of ancient mountain chains, thought to be signs for today’s
highlands.
Intrusive Igneous Activity:
 Magma ascent led to the formation of large igneous intrusions, contributing to
mountain formation. Cooling of magma formed crystalline rocks.
Metamorphism:
 Existing rocks (sedimentary and igneous) subjected to heat and pressure,
transforming them into metamorphic rocks.
Results:
 Huge mountains formation
 "penplain formation: Which refers to a flat or gently undulating landscape that
has been significantly eroded and is typically found at a geological stage more
advanced than a plain .
 Basement rocks that support younger rock formations in Ethiopia, forming the
foundation for the geological structure.
 Precambrian Rocks and Mineral Characteristics
Types of Rocks:
• Metamorphic Rocks: Resultant from the alteration of original rocks.
Common metamorphic types include gneisses and schists.
• Crystalline Rocks: These rocks are highly resistant to weathering,
indicative of high-grade metamorphic conditions.
Key Locations:
• Northern Ethiopia: Areas in Tigray.
• Western Ethiopia: Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz regions.
• Southern Ethiopia: Parts of Bale and Omo regions.
• Eastern Ethiopia: In Eastern Hararghe.
 The Paleozoic Era (600 million - 225 million years ago)
Era Overview:
 Lasted approximately 375 million years, marked by significant denudation.

Key Geological Processes:

Denudation: The lowering of the land due to erosion

 The immense mountains formed during the Precambrian were subject to
prolonged erosion.
 Extensive weathering, breaking down mountain ranges into a flat or gently
undulating landscape known as peneplains.
Sediment Transport:
 Sediments generated from erosion of mountains were carried away from the
highlands. Deposits began to form in lowland areas, contributing to
sedimentary basin development.
Ethiopian Context:
 Rare Paleozoic rocks are found in Ethiopia due to limited sedimentation during
this period.
 Palaeozoic era was not era of rock formation in Ethiopia
 Mesozoic Era (225 - 70 million years ago)
 Duration: Around 155 million years, characterized by dynamic geologic activity
involving changes in sea levels and land elevation.
 Mesozoic sediments cover about 25% of Ethiopia's land area, predominantly
found in southeastern lowlands and along rift valleys.
 Epeirogenesis: Gradual uplift and subsidence affected the Horn of Africa.
 Epeirogenic movements caused large sections of land to sink and rise, creating
different environmental conditions.
 225 million years ago, subsiding areas allowed oceans to expand into successive
coastal environments, forming shallow marine seas over the lowland regions.
Sedimentary rocks formed included:
 Adigrat Sandstone: Consisting of sand deposits from ancient rivers and coastal
environments.
 Hintalo Limestone: Formed through the accumulation of marine organisms and
sediment.
 Upper Sandstone: Resulted from later riverine and coastal deposits.
Implications for Mineral Resources:
 Potential for oil and gas deposits linked to the organic-rich marine sediments
accumulated during this era.
 The Cenozoic Era (70 million years ago - Present)
.
 The Cenozoic Era is the most recent of the geologic Eras.
 Affected the current landmass of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa
 Many of the mountain ranges began to form. The climate became cooler and ice
ages occurred
 Homo sapiens appeared about 500.000 years ago
 Formation of the Rift Valley, Read sea. Gulf of Aden and Mediterranean sea
 Formation of many of African volcanic mountains
 Climatic change that resulted in the cooling and later warming
 Geologic Processes in the Cenozoic Era
1. Uplifting and Volcanism

 Continuous uplift from tectonics generated substantial volcanic activity.

 Massive outpourings of basalt formed the foundations of the Ethiopian plateau.

2. Formation of the Rift Valley

 Movement along the East African Rift System led to substantial subsidence.
 Formation of a structural depression from the Arabian Peninsula to
Mozambique.

3. Quaternary Depositional Processes

 Climate changes during the Quaternary influenced erosion and sediment

deposition patterns.
 Formation of numerous lakes and marshes, filling rift valleys with rich
sediment.
 Cont…
 Rift Valley. A land feature formed when two parallel faults occur
on the surface of the earth and the land between the two faults
sinks down
 The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the Great East African Rift
system that extends from Palestine-Jordan to Mozambique in the
south, for a distance of about 7,200 kilometers.
 About 5,600 kilometer lies in East Africa, and 1,700 kilometers
in Eritrea and Ethiopia.
 The widest part of Ethiopia Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle (200-
300 km).
 The Rift Valley region of Ethiopian is the most unstable part of
 Physiographic effects of Ethiopian Rift Valley
 It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two as highlands and Rift
Valley regions.
 It separates the Arabian landmass from African landmass.
 It caused the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden
 It creates basins and fault depressions on which the Rift Valley
lakes are formed
 Many of Ethiopian lakes belong to Rift Valley e.g. Abaya,
Chamo, Shalla, Hawassa, Ziway, Langano etc.
 On the other hand, there are also many highland lakes in Ethiopia
e.g Tana, Wonchi, Ashenge, Hyke, Bishoftu etc.
 Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia
 The occurrence of metallic minerals in Ethiopia is associated with
the Precambrian rocks/ Basement complex
 Geological surveys proved that Ethiopia has abundant mineral
resources of metals and precious metals, coal, and industrial
minerals.
 Gold: has been mined in Ethiopia for quite long time, mainly from
Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) and Adola.
 Platinum: The Yubdo area in Wellega, is the only active Ethiopian
Platinum mine.
 Tantalum; is abundantly found in southern Ethiopia.
 Cont…
 Potash : reserve in the Danakil (Dallol Depression) of the Afar
region is believed to be most significant.
 Clay ;Ethiopia is endowed with industrial clay material. Alluvial
clay deposits for bricks and pottery
 Marble: Mostly found in west of Mekelle and south of Adwa in
Tigray.
 There are also Construction stones like Basalt, granite, limestone
and sandstone are important building stones.
 Current State of Mineral Exploration
Geological Surveys:
 Comprehensive surveys discovered extensive mineral resources across three
main greenstone belts.

Western and Southwestern Greenstone Belt

Contains various minerals including primary gold and base metals(Copper
(Cu):, Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn) and Aluminum (Al))

Southern Greenstone Belt (Adola/ SNNPR))

Notable for gold and tantalum deposits.

Northern Greenstone Belt (Tigray)

Hosts significant base metals and gold occurrences.