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The Vegetation Indicator Index (VPI) is a measure used to measure the growth and health of
vegetation. It is calculated by analyzing the electromagnetic spectrum of satellite images,
which can capture changes in vegetation over time. VPI calculates the difference between
two spectral bands, usually the infrared band and the red band, and divides it by the sum of
the two bands. The formula for calculating VPI is: VPI = (NIR - Red) / (NIR + Red) where
NIR represents the infrared band and Red represents the red band. VPI has been widely used
by environmental scientists, farmers, and other decision makers to monitor plant growth,
identify nutrient deficiencies, and measure the impact of climate change on vegetation.
As technology advances, the methods used to calculate the Vegetation Indicator Index (VPI)
have been improved to increase accuracy. One method that has been used is Near-Time
Regression, which uses real-time data to predict plant growth. Another method is Normal
Regression, which assumes that the data follows a normal distribution. Other methods
include Ridge Regression, which adds penalties to the data to prevent overfitting, and Elastic
Net Regression, which combines Ridge Regression and Lasso Regression. Other methods
include Logistic Regression, which is used for classification problems, and Stepwise
Regression, which is used for complex regression problems. Other methods include
Component Analysis, which is used to identify the main factors that influence plant growth,
and Principal Component Analysis, which is used to identify the main factors that influence
plant growth. Other methods include Decision Trees, which are used to make decisions
based on data, and Support Vector Machines, which are used for data classification. Other
methods include Artificial Neural Networks, which are used to model complex relationships
between data, and Multi-layer Perceptron, which is used for classification and regression
problems. The final method is Deep Learning, which uses very large and complex neural
networks to model complex relationships between data. All of these methods have been used
to increase the accuracy of VPI calculations and monitor plant growth more accurately.
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Agricultural mechanization refers to the substitution of human labor with animal or
mechanical power in the crop, livestock, aquaculture, and agroforestry value chains (Daum
and Kirui 2021). The process of beginning to use machines, technology, and automation to do
work is called mechanization.
Farm mechanization describes the substitution of human labor on the farm whereas
agricultural mechanization spans the whole agricultural value chain (Daum and Kirui 2021;
FAO and AUC 2018). Farm mechanization is the process of using agricultural machinery to
increase agricultural productivity
Commenced from Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution, in modern history, [is] the process of change from an agrarian,
handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture.
History of Global Agricultural Mechanization
Started in 18th century around England
Picked up in 19th century adoptions of steam engine started
In the United States mechanization of agriculture began later than in Britain, but they
introduced many Important agri- machines
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Impacts of climate change
- INCREASING ELECTRIC BILLS AND MORE BLACKOUTS
increased use of air-conditioning and electric fans
Preemptively shutting off power to prevent wildfires
Hydro plants have less water to generate power.
- MORE ALLERGIES AND OTHER HEALTH RISKS DISRUPT FARMING ACTIVITIES
Pollen seasons are longer and worsen air quality
Ground levet ozone can cause, coughing, lung infection, asthma,
After flooding, buildings may have mold growth (allergies, lung disease)
Heal cramps, heal eshauskion, hyperthermia, and beatstroke
Disease carrying mosquitoes; malaria, dengue, fever, West Nile virus
- INCREASE TAXES
National and minister poll tax increase to offset impacts from Climate Change
Resilience activities significantly less expensive than infrastructure repair
- RISING FOOD PRICES AND LESS VARIETY
Prices rising 3-8% in the past decade and will continue to rise
Extreme weather affects livestock and crops and drought impact on the stability and price of
food
More pathogens will affect plant health and more food will spoil
Food is a globally traded commodity, and a climate event in one region can cause shortages
globally
75% of crops rely on insects for pollination and 41% of inset species are threatened with
extinction
- INCREASE TAXES
National and minister poll tax increase to offset impacts from Climate Change
Resilience activities significantly less expensive than infrastructure repair
- RISING FOOD PRICES AND LESS VARIETY
Prices rising 3-8% in the past decade and will continue to rise
Extreme weather affects livestock and crops and drought impact on the stability and price of
food
More pathogens will affect plant health and more food will spoil
Food is a globally traded commodity, and a climate event in one region can cause shortages
globally
75% of crops rely on insects for pollination and 41% of inset species are threatened with
extinction
- REDUCED QUALITY OF WATER
Intense storms and heavy precipitations result in the contamination of water resources
Agriculture areas; run-off transports animal waste, pesticides and chemical fertiliser, and can
enter drinking waters.
Polluted drinking water can cause diarrhoea, Legionnaires, disease and cholera, and eye/ear
and skin infections
Rising sea levels; seawater can enter groundwater supplies
Drought contributes to contaminants becoming more concentrated Need for "sustainable
models of water management" and development at the local, regional and global levels
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Postharvest Technologies for Fresh produce
Postharvest; definition
is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning,
sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its
parent plant. Postharvest treatment largely determines final quality, whether a crop is sold for
fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in a processed food product.
Postharvest physiology
Plant physiology is the study of plant function and behaviour, encompassing all the dynamic
processes of growth, metabolism, reproduction, defence, and communication that account for
plants being alive.
Physiology related to postharvest commodities
• Transpiration
• Ripenning process
• Composition changes
Most fruits and vegetables contain between 80-95% water by weight.
Water loss in produce accurs int thaiprm of water vapor and can result in shriveling, wilting,
softening and loss in weight.
The acceptability is reduced.
Water vapor moves from a region of high concentration (inside) to an area of low
concentration (outside, the environment
- Relative humidity (RH)
- Temperature
- Surface area/volume ratio
- Wax and cuticle
moisture at the area adjacent to skin
Physical injury, cut, bruise
Respiration
respiration continues until the stored starch and sugar reserves are depleted
When this happens the produce will age and die (senescence)
Individual fruit and vegetables have different respiration rates. Generally, the higher the
respiration rate, the shorter the shelf-life.
Different varieties of the same fruit can have different respiration rates and the same fruit can
have different rates depending on maturity.
Ethylene
Ethylene gas (C₂H₂) is a natural hormone produced by some fruit and vegetables as they
ripen and promotes additional ripening of produce exposed to it.
Is produced within the cells of plant and is capable of stimulating many reactions within
plants
Ethylene conc. (internal)
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International Summer Course on Integrated Sustainable Agriculture for Circular
Economy (ISCISACE)
TC: Aseptic culture of cells/organs underdefined physical and chemical condition in vitro
Gottlieb Haberlandt known as the father of plant TC Australian botanist.
First separate and culture the plant cells on Knop's salt solution. He pointed out for the first
time that plants cells are totipotent- establishment of plant TC. He was the first to point out
the possibilities of the culture of isolated tissues and the cultured cells from callus. The plant
developed by TC are cloned and grown & maintained by p of micropropagation.
Concept of TC
Totipotency: Total potential of single cell to become a complete individual.
De-differentition
Change from given differentiated state to a less differiated or stem cell-like state.
Re-Differentiation
Change from less differlated state to a more differentiated state
TC as a propagation tools
 True-to-type multiplication of elite genotypes
 Seed-free (no supply risk, germination & season free)
 Soil and field-free.
 Disease-free and virus-free.
 Climate-independent (resilience).
 High efficiency.
 Scalable production.
 Year-round production.
Two major methods in plant TC
1. Type of in vitro growth organ, callus or suspension culture.
2. Type of explant - single cell, shoots/roots, somatic embryo, meristem. anther, haploid,
protoplast, embryo culture and hybridization.
Explant: Any part of plant taken out and grown in test tube/jar under sterile conditions
in nutrient media