Mutah University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

Unit Operations Lab 0404533

A Report About Fixed & Fluidized Beds

Experiment no. 2

Instructors: Prof. Dr. Nabeel Al Jarrah

Eng. Saja Al Awasa

Date of submission: 24th of March 2025

Student Name Student Number
Arwa Musallam Lassassmeh 120210414019
Rayan Othman Al Masri 120210414078
Ro’a Baker Al Btoush 120210414050
Sarah Muneer Abu Alkhair 120210414081
• Abstract

This experiment investigates the behaviour of a granular bed subjected to

upward airflow in both fixed and fluidized states. By gradually increasing
the volumetric flow rate through a column of sand particles, pressure drop,
and bed height were monitored to determine the transition from a fixed bed
to a fluidized bed. The experimental values of pressure drop and voidage
were compared with theoretical predictions using Ergun’s equation and the
fluidization pressure balance. The minimum fluidization velocity was
identified, and distinctions between particulate and aggregate fluidization
regimes were observed. The results confirmed the theoretical behaviour of
fluidized systems and highlighted the importance of flow rate and particle
characteristics in reactor design.
• Introduction
Fixed and fluidized beds are key systems in chemical engineering where
fluids interact with solid particles. In a fixed bed, the fluid passes through a
stationary packed column, suitable for applications such as filtration,
adsorption, and catalytic reactions. In contrast, a fluidized bed forms when
the fluid velocity is sufficient to suspend the particles, greatly enhancing heat
and mass transfer.
Fluidized beds exhibit two main regimes: particulate (homogeneous)
fluidization, where fine, uniform particles fluidize smoothly, and aggregate
(bubbling) fluidization, where larger particles cause bubble formation and
vigorous mixing. These regimes impact bed stability, expansion behaviour,
and process efficiency.
The transition between fixed and fluidized states occurs at the minimum
fluidization velocity the point where fluid drag balances particle weight.
Beyond this point, the bed expands, and pressure drop stabilizes.
This experiment explores the behaviour of a solid particle bed under
increasing fluid flow. By monitoring pressure drop and bed expansion, it
determines the onset of fluidization and compares theoretical and
experimental values of both the minimum fluidization velocity and the
pressure drop. It also and distinguishes between particulate and aggregate
fluidization. The results are fundamental for the design of efficient
multiphase reactors in industry.

• Objectives
1. Evaluate the pressure behaviour across the bed under both fixed and
fluidized conditions.
2. Identify the point at which fluidization begins.
3. Illustrate the distinction between aggregate (bubbling) and particulate
(homogeneous) fluidization.
• Theory
Fluid-solid contact systems such as fixed and fluidized beds play a crucial
role in chemical engineering processes including reaction engineering,
separation, combustion, and thermal treatments. These systems optimize heat
and mass transfer by enabling efficient interaction between a fluid phase (gas
or liquid) and solid particles (typically catalysts or media).

Fixed Bed
A fixed bed is composed of solid particles packed in a column
through which the fluid flows without moving the solids. The bed
structure remains static, and pressure drop depends primarily on
the flow resistance through the interstitial voids between the
particles.

Fluidized Bed
In a fluidized bed, fluid flows upward at sufficient velocity to
suspend the particles, causing them to behave like a fluid. This
state enhances mixing, heat and mass transfer, and reaction
efficiency. Fluidized beds are preferred in large-scale catalytic and
thermal processes due to their uniform temperature profile and
high contact surface area.

Particles in fluidized systems are influenced by:

▪ Gravitational force 𝐹𝑔 : Acts downward due to particle weight.
▪ Buoyant force 𝐹𝑏 : Acts upward, equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
▪ Drag force 𝐹𝑑 : Acts upward due to fluid flow; increases with velocity.
Fd Fb
Force Balance:
▪ Fixed Bed: 𝐹𝑔 > 𝐹𝑑

▪ Fluidization Point: 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑 + 𝐹𝑏

▪ Entrainment or transport: 𝐹𝑑 > 𝐹𝑔 Fg

Voidage (ε)
Voidage, or bed porosity, is the fraction of the bed volume not occupied by
solids. It directly influences flow behaviour, pressure drop, and fluid-particle
interactions. As the fluid velocity increases and the bed transitions to a
fluidized state, the voidage increases due to expansion of the particle bed.

mp
ε=1−
ρp × V

Where:
- mp : Mass of particle (kg)
- ρp : Particle density (kg/m3)
- V: Total bed volume (m3)

Minimum Fluidization Velocity (𝐯𝐦𝐟 )

The minimum fluidization velocity is the threshold fluid velocity at which
the drag force from the upward fluid balances the weight of the solid
particles, initiating fluidization. It can be estimated using:

D2P ε3 g(ρs − ρf )
vmf =
150 (1 − ε)μf
Where:
- vmf : Minimum fluidization velocity (m/s)
- dp : Particle diameter (m)
- ρp , ρf : Densities of particles and fluid (kg/m3)
- μf : Fluid viscosity (N.s/m)
- ε: Voidage at minimum fluidization
- g: Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Superficial Velocity vs. Minimum Fluidization Velocity
- Superficial Velocity v
Fluid velocity assuming it flows through the empty bed.

- Minimum Fluidization Velocity vmf

Critical velocity where fluidization begins.

▪ Key Relationships:
- v < vmf : Fixed bed
- v = vmf : Fluidization starts
- v > vmf : Fluidized or transport regime

Pressure Drop (∆𝐏)

The pressure drop across a fixed bed can be determined using Ergun’s
equation, which accounts for both viscous and inertial pressure losses:
ΔP 150(1 − ε)2 1.75(1 − ε) 2
= μv + ρv
L D2P ε3 DP ε3

150L(1 − ε)2 vμ 1.75Lv 2 (1 − ε)

h= 2 3 + 3
× 103 (mmH2 O)
DP ε ρl g DP ε g

The pressure drop in a fluidized bed equals the weight of the solid particles
per unit area when the bed reaches the minimum fluidization velocity:
ΔP = L(1 − ε)(ρs − ρf )g
L
h= (1 − ε)(ρs − ρf ) × 103 (mmH2 O)
ρl
Where:
- ε: Void fraction (porosity)
- DP : Particle diameter (m)
- μ: Fluid viscosity (Pa.s)
- L: Bed height (m)
Types of Fluidized Beds
1. Particulate Fluidization: Uniform bed expansion, no bubbling. Fine, low-
density particles. Used in ion exchange and biochemical processes.
2. Bubbling Fluidization: Gas bubbles through bed. Common in catalytic
cracking and combustion.

Industrial Applications
- Fixed Beds: Filtration, catalytic reactors, gas absorption.
- Fluidized Beds: FCC units, biomass gasifiers, dryers, incinerators,
polymerization reactors.

▪ Relationship between the pressure drop and bed height with the
volumetric flowrate:
 • Apparatus & Materials
- Apparatus

The Fixed and Fluidized Bed Unit consists of the following main components:
1. Bed Column: The main experimental section where the bed transitions
between fixed and fluidized states.
2. Rotameter: Measures and controls the flow rate of air or water entering
the system.
3. Manometer: Measures the pressure drop across the bed, crucial for
determining fluidization conditions.
4. Power Supply (Pump and Compressor): Provides the necessary force for
fluid flow, controlling the velocity of air and water.
5. Water Circuit: Supplies water as a fluidizing medium in liquid-phase
experiments.
6. Air Circuit: Supplies compressed air for gas-phase fluidization
experiments.

- Materials
1. Sand Particles: Used as the solid medium in the bed column.
2. Graduated Cylinder: For measuring and transferring sand into the
column.
3. Stopwatch: To record the stabilization time of the system.
• Procedure
1. Measure 500 grams of sand and load it into the column to form the
bed.
2. Switch on the air compressor to initiate airflow.
3. Adjust the rotameter to set the desired flow rate.
4. At two-minute intervals, record the manometer reading and the
corresponding bed height.
5. Gradually increase the flow rate and repeat the measurements until
the bed transitions from a fixed to a fluidized state.

Note: At each flow rate, the system was allowed to reach steady-state
conditions before recording the bed height, manometer reading, and
observed bed behaviour.

• Safety Precautions

- Ensure all connections are secure: Check that hoses, valves, and
fittings are tightly connected to avoid air leaks or sudden
disconnection during operation.

- Gradually increase airflow: Avoid sudden surges in pressure that

could cause rapid fluidization or damage to the column.

- Use only non-toxic, non-flammable gases for fluidization to prevent

health risks or fire hazards.

- Calibrate pressure transducers correctly before use to ensure reliable

pressure measurements.

- Monitor the fluid temperature during operation to avoid overheating,

which could alter particle properties or pose burn risks.

- Avoid skin or eye contact with particles: Handle the bed material
carefully and avoid exposure, especially when adding or removing it.

- Keep hands clear of the column during operation: Prevent direct

exposure to moving particles or sudden bursts of air.
• Data & Calculations
- Experimental data

Q (L/min) Q (m3/s) L (m) ΔP (mmH2O)

1 1.66 × 10−5 0.11 1.2

2 3.33 × 10−5 0.11 3.4
3 5.00 × 10−5 0.11 6.1
4 6.66 × 10−5 0.11 9.4
5 8.33 × 10−5 0.11 11.8
6 1.00 × 10−4 0.11 14.3
7 1.16 × 10−4 0.11 17.7
8 1.33 × 10−4 0.113 18.8
9 1.50 × 10−4 0.115 19
10 1.66 × 10−4 0.118 19.2
11 1.83 × 10−4 0.12 19.3
12 2.00 × 10−4 0.121 19.3
13 2.16 × 10−4 0.124 19.4
14 2.33 × 10−4 0.127 19.4
15 2.50 × 10−4 0.13 19.4

- Given Data:
DP 4.85 × 10−4 m
ρp 2850 kg⁄m3
mp 0.25 kg
ρf 1.2 kg⁄m3
μf 1.96 × 10−5 Pa ∙ s
ρl 1000 kg⁄m3
Ac 1.963 × 10−3 m2
 - Theoretical data

Q
Q (m3/s) L(m) 𝐯 (𝐦⁄𝐬) 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 (𝐦𝟑 ) 𝛆 ΔP(mmH2O)
(L/min)

1 1.66 × 10−5 0.11 0.0085 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 0.942

2 3.33 × 10−5 0.11 0.0169 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 1.878
3 5.00 × 10−5 0.11 0.0254 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 2.830
4 6.66 × 10−5 0.11 0.0339 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 3.787
5 8.33 × 10−5 0.11 0.0424 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 4.748
6 1.00 × 10−4 0.11 0.0509 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 5.715
7 1.16 × 10−4 0.11 0.0590 2.159 × 10−4 0.5937 6.640
8 1.33 × 10−4 0.113 0.0677 2.218 × 10−4 0.6045 127.230
9 1.50 × 10−4 0.115 0.0764 2.257 × 10−4 0.6113 127.256
10 1.66 × 10−4 0.118 0.0845 2.316 × 10−4 0.6212 127.250
11 1.83 × 10−4 0.12 0.0932 2.355 × 10−4 0.6275 127.254
12 2.00 × 10−4 0.121 0.1018 2.375 × 10−4 0.6306 127.247
13 2.16 × 10−4 0.124 0.1100 2.434 × 10−4 0.6396 127.225
14 2.33 × 10−4 0.127 0.1186 2.493 × 10−4 0.6381 127.230
15 2.50 × 10−4 0.13 0.1273 2.551 × 10−4 0.6561 321.980
Graphs

Pressure Drop Vs Volumetric Flowrate

25

20
ΔP(mmH2O)

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Vmf Q (m3/s)

- The minimum fluidization velocity at Q=1.33 × 10⁻⁴ m³/s, is approximately 0.0677

m/s.

Height of Bed Vs Volumetric Flowrate

0.135

0.13

0.125
L(m)

0.12

0.115

0.11

0.105
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Q (m3/s)
Calculation samples:
- Convert the volumetric flowrate from (L/min) to (m3/s)

1 m3 = 1000 L
1 min = 60 s
For Q = 1 L⁄min:
L 1 m3 1 min
Q=1 × × = 1.66 × 10−5 m3 ⁄s
min 1000 L 60 s

- To calculate the superficial velocity v

v = Q⁄L
For Q = 1.66 × 10−5 m3 ⁄s and L = 0.11 m:

−5
m3 1
v = 1.66 × 10 × = 0.0085 m⁄s
s 0.11 m

- To calculate the volume

Volume = Ac × L

At Q = 1.66 × 10−5 m3 ⁄s, L = 0.11 m:

Volume = 1.963 × 10−3 m2 × 0.11 m = 2.159 × 10−4 m3

- To calculate the voidage ε

mp
ε=1−
ρp × Vol

At Q = 1.66 × 10−5 m3 ⁄s, Volume = 2.159 × 10−4 m3 :

0.25 kg
ε=1− = 0.5937
kg
2850 3 × 2.159 × 10−4 m3
m
- To calculate the theoretical pressure change
a. In the case of the fixed bed
150 (1 − ε)2 μvL 1.75(1 − ε)ρv 2 L
∆P = +
ε3 dp 2 ε3 dp

For Q = 1.66 × 10−5 m3 ⁄s, ε = 0.5937:

150 (1 − 0.5937)2 (1.96 × 10−5 ) kg 0.0085 m 0.11 m

∆P = × × ×
0.59373 m∙s s (4.85 × 10−4 )2 m2

1.75(1 − 0.5937) 1.2 kg 0.00852 m2 0.11 m

+ 3
× 3
× 2
× = 9.242 kg⁄ms2
0.5937 m s (4.85 × 10−4 )m

b. In the case of the fluidized bed

∆P = Lg (1 − ε)(ρs − ρf )

For Q = 1.33 × 10−4 m3 ⁄s, ε = 0.6045

m kg
∆P = 0.113 m × 9.8 × (1 − 0.6045) × (2850 − 1.2) 3 = 1247.7080 kg⁄ms2
s m

- kg⁄ms 2 is a unit of pressure equivalent to Pa when multiplying both the

nominator and the denominator by the acceleration unit m⁄s 2 :
kg m⁄s 2
× = N⁄m2
ms 2 m⁄s 2
Where:
1 N = 1 kg × m⁄s 2
1 Pa = 1 N⁄m2
Then:
1 kg⁄ms 2 = 1 N⁄m2 = 1 Pa
- The unit of the pressure change should be converted from kg⁄ms 2 to
mmH2 O
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa
1 atm = 10333 mmH2 O

1 atm 10333 mmH2 O 10333 mmH2 O

= =
1.01325 × 105 Pa 1 atm 1.01325 × 105 Pa

By dividing both the nominator and the denominator by 10333:

1 mmH2 O
9.805 Pa

This fraction is now used as a conversion factor:

1 mmH2 O
∆P = 9.242 Pa × = 0.942 mmH2 O
9.805 Pa

- Minimum Fluidization Velocity Calculations:

a. Experimentally
At Q = 8 L⁄min which corresponds to 1.33 × 10−4 m3 ⁄s

1.33 × 10−4 m3 ⁄s
vmf = Q⁄Ac = = 0.067 m⁄s
1.963 × 10−3 m2

b. Theoretically
At Q = 8 L⁄min and ε = 0.6045
D2P ε3 g(ρs − ρf )
vmf =
150 (1 − ε)μf
(4.85 × 10−4 )2 m2 × 0.60453 × 9.8 × (2850 − 1.2) kg⁄m3
vmf =
150 (1 − 0.6045) × (1.96 × 10−5 ) kg⁄m ∙ s
= 1.247 m⁄s
• Results
The following trends were observed during the experiment:
- As the flow rate increased from 1.66 × 10⁻⁵ to 2.50 × 10⁻⁴ m³/s, the
pressure drop across the bed rose steadily in the fixed-bed regime.

- At approximately 1.33 × 10⁻⁴ m³/s, the pressure drop reached a plateau

(~19.4 mmH₂O), indicating the onset of fluidization.

- Simultaneously, the bed height increased, reflecting expansion of the bed

volume and increase in voidage.

- Experimental and theoretical pressure drops matched closely in the fixed-

bed region, while deviations increased near and beyond the fluidization
point due to bubble formation and bed instability.

Minimum Fluidization Velocities:

• Theoretical = 1.247 m/s
• Experimental = 0.0677 m/s (calculated from Q = 1.33 × 10⁻⁴ m³/s and
column cross-sectional area of 1.963 × 10⁻³ m²)

Graphs:
- Pressure Drop vs. Volumetric Flow Rate showed a linear increase
followed by a plateau.
- Bed Height vs. Volumetric Flow Rate showed gradual expansion
correlating with increasing flow and voidage.
• Discussion
The experimental results demonstrate classic fluidization behaviour. Initially,
as the flow rate increased, the pressure drop rose linearly, consistent with
Ergun’s equation for fixed beds. Once the fluid velocity exceeded the
minimum fluidization velocity, the pressure drop stabilized, indicating that
the bed was fully fluidized, and the drag force balanced the effective weight
of the particles.

The bed height increased post-fluidization, confirming the bed’s expansion

and transition into a fluid-like state. Two distinct fluidization regimes were
noted:
- Particulate fluidization: At the point of fluidization, the bed expanded
uniformly with minimal turbulence.
- Aggregate (bubbling) fluidization: At higher flow rates, bubbles formed
and disrupted uniformity, typical of coarser particle systems.

Theoretical pressure values showed close agreement with the experimental

data in the fixed regime but diverged slightly in the fluidized regime due to
dynamic factors like bubble coalescence and particle collisions not
accounted for in simple models.

The calculated voidage values ranged from ~0.59 to 0.65, consistent with
typical values for granular media. The calculated vmf matched closely with
the flow rate at which pressure stabilization began, validating the
methodology.
 ▪ Error Analysis
The theoretical minimum fluidization velocity was calculated as 1.247 m/s,
while the experimental value was determined to be approximately 1.33 ×
10⁻⁴ m³/s which corresponds to a superficial velocity of approximately
0.0677 m/s (based on a cross-sectional area of 1.963 × 10⁻³ m²).
. Using the percentage error formula:
experimental value − theoritical value
ϵ%= | | × 100%
theoritical value

0.0677 m/s − 1.247 m/s

ϵ%= | | × 100% = 94.57%
1.247 m/s

This high deviation may be attributed to the following sources of error:

• Instrumental inaccuracies in rotameter and manometer readings.
• Flow instability near the onset of fluidization, making the transition
point less distinct.
• Irregularities in particle shape and size, as natural sand does not
perfectly match theoretical assumptions.
• Packing inconsistencies in the bed that affect local porosity and flow
paths.
• Temperature and humidity variations impacting air properties.
• Wall effects in narrow columns affecting fluid distribution and drag
forces
• Conclusion

The experiment successfully demonstrated the transition from fixed to

fluidized bed behaviour in a sand-filled column as airflow increased. The
pressure drop and bed height data aligned with theoretical predictions, and
the minimum fluidization velocity was identified with good accuracy. The
distinction between particulate and bubbling fluidization was clearly
observed, emphasizing the role of particle size, shape, and flow conditions.
These findings reinforce the importance of fluidization principles in
chemical reactor design, particularly in systems where high mixing and
heat/mass transfer efficiency are required.

• References
- Laboratory Manual
- Levenspiel, O. (1999). Chemical Reaction Engineering. Wiley.
- Kunii, D., & Levenspiel, O. (1991). Fluidization Engineering (2nd ed.).
Butterworth-Heinemann.
- McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., & Harriott, P. (2005). Unit Operations of
Chemical Engineering (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
- Wankat, P. C. (2012). Separation Process Engineering. Pearson
Education.
- Wen, C. Y., & Yu, Y. H. (1966). "A generalized method for predicting
the minimum fluidization velocity." AIChE Journal, 12(3), 610–612.