Session 4

HRM 407
Training and Development
NAR
Learning: Theories and Program Design
 Learning Theories
4. Goal Setting Theory:
Goal setting theory assumes that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and
intentions. Goals influence a person’s behavior by directing energy and attention,
sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal
attainment.
Specific challenging goals result in better performance and commitment to goal than
vague, unchallenging goals. Also, employees are less likely to be committed to a goal if
they believe it is too difficult. Goals should be SMART to motivate learning. Specific,
Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time bound goals motivate employees learn the
training with maximum effort so that the result is visible and remarkable.
An employee will only try to learn operating a machine within 10 days if he knows that
this will enable him increase his monthly production rate at 30%.

5. Adult Learning Theory:

Most educational theories as well as formal educational institutions have been developed exclusively to educate
children and youth. Pedagogy, the art and science of teaching children, has dominated educational theory.
Educational psychologists, recognizing the limitations of formal education theories, developed andragogy, the
theory of adult learning. Malcolm Knowles has proposed some assumptions about adult learning theory that a
training designer should keep in mind-
1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.
2. Adults have a need to be self-directed.
3. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.
4. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.
5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.
Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for
many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal
education setting. Many adults believe that they learn through experience. As a result, trainers need to provide
opportunities for trainees to experience something new and discuss it or review training materials based on their
experiences.

6. Information Processing Theory:

Compared to other learning theories, information processing theories give more emphasis to the internal
processes that occur when training content is learned and retained by a learner. Figure 4.3 shows a model
of information processing.
Information processing theory proposes that information or messages received by the learner go through
some transformations in the human brain. there are 3 different memory storage systems or stages through
which information must travel if it is to be remembered. These are-
1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory
Information processing begins when a message or stimuli (which could be sound, smell, touch, or pictures)
from the environment is received by receptors (ears, nose, skin, eyes) and enters sensory memory, which
holds the information for 1 second only.
The information then moves to short-term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds.
Finally, the information to long-term memory which is a storehouse of almost unlimited capacity. Like a
new file we save on a hard drive, the information in long-term memory is filed and coded so that we can
retrieve it when we need it. Long-term memory has different components which represents a separate
memory system in the brain. This are-
 Declarative memory: Memory for factual information: names, faces, date etc.
 Procedural memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a ball;
 Episodic memory: Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
Whether the information moves from short-term to long-term memory depends on the repetition of the
material and the receiver’s emotional link to that information.
A search process occurs in memory when we try to use that stored information. The response generator
organizes the responses and instructs our effectors (our body or muscles) about what to do. The “what to
do” relates to one of the five learning outcomes: verbal information, cognitive skills, motor skills,
intellectual skills, or attitudes.
The final link in the model is feedback from the environment. This feedback provides the learner with an
evaluation of the response given. This information can come from another person or the learner’s own
observation of the results of his or her action. A positive evaluation of the response provides reinforcement
that the behavior is desirable and should be stored in long-term memory to use in similar situations.
This information processing model highlights how verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, meaningful
learning context (examples, problems) facilitate coding and learning of a trainee.
 The learning process
For understanding the learning process, we need to consider 2 things-
A. The physical and mental processes involved in learning
B. The learning cycle

A. Mental and Physical Processes

The basic learning process includes the following components-
1. Expectancy: Expectancy refers to the mental state that the learner brings to the training. This includes
factors such as readiness for training (motivation to learn, basic skills) , understanding of the purpose of
the training and the expectation of benefits that may result from learning.
2. Perception: Perception refers to the ability to organize the message from the environment so that it can
be processed, stored and applied.
3. Working Storage: The sensory and short term memory is involved here, where rehearsal and repetition
of information occur, allowing material to be coded for memory. Working storage is limited by the
amount of material that can be processed (five messages) at any one time.
4. Semantic encoding: Semantic encoding refers to the actual coding process of incoming messages.
Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded. Learning strategies include
rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration.
 Rehearsal, the simplest learning strategy, focuses on learning through repetition (memorization).
 In organizing the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material.( Solving math)
 In elaboration the trainee relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge, skills, or
behaviors.
5. Long term storage: After messages have been received, rehearsed, and coded, they are ready for storage
in long-term memory.
6. Retrieval: Retrieval involves identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence
performance. To use learned material (e.g., cognitive skills, verbal information), it must be retrieved.
7. Generalizing: An important part of the learning process is not only being able to reproduce exactly what
was learned but also being able to adapt the learning for use in similar situations. This is known as
generalizing.
8. Gratifying: Finally, gratifying refers to the feedback that the learner receives as a result of using learning
content. Feedback is necessary to allow the learner to adapt responses so they are more appropriate.
 B.
The Learning Cycle
Kolb's experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-stage cycle of learning and four separate
learning styles.
Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically
represented by a four-stage learning cycle –

1. Concrete experience (Feeling)

2. Reflective observation (Watching)
3. Abstract conceptualization (Thinking)
4. Active experimentation. (Doing)

1. Concrete Experience - the learner encounters a

concrete experience. This might be a new experience or
situation (e.g., a work problem).
2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience - the learner reflects on the new experience in the light
of their existing knowledge. Any inconsistency between experience and understanding is of particular
importance. S/He thinks about the problem and that reflects his/her own observation about the
problem.
3. Abstract Conceptualization - This leads to generation of ideas of how to solve the problem. This stage
gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept
4. Active Experimentation - Finally the learner implements the ideas directly to the problem. The newly
created or modified concepts give rise to experimentation. The learner applies their idea(s) to the world
around them to see what happens.

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages. Trainees continually
develop concepts, translate them into ideas, implement them, and adapt them as a result of their personal
observations about their experiences. Researchers have tried to measure trainees’ weak and strong points
in the learning cycle. Some people have a tendency to over- or underemphasize one stage of the learning
cycle or to avoid certain stages. The key to effective learning is to be competent in each of the four stages.
Using Kolb’s model for designing a course forces you to design activities according to the steps in the
learning cycle. This is powerful because it addresses different learning styles. And people are very
different in their learning style. Kolb describes four dominant learning styles which are always a
combination of two learning preferences on two dimensions:
“Feeling versus thinking” and “watching versus doing”.

Every learner will score differently on these two important dimensions of learning:

 The diverging learning style, combines watch and feel.

People with this learning style are good at idea generation and brainstorming. They have a broad
interest, are open-minded, and like to work in groups.
 The assimilating learning style, combines watch and think.
People with this learning style like structure, clear explanations, and a logical approach. They are
interested in concepts, ideas, and models. They like lectures and reading.
 The converging learning style, combines doing and thinking.
People with this learning style are practical and are focused on solving problems. They are
technical and application-oriented.
 The accommodating learning style, combines feeling and doing.
People with this learning style are hands-on and very intuitive. They like challenges and an
experiential approach based on gut feeling. In a course there will always be a variety of people and
preferred learning styles. Designing a course with the learning cycle of Kolb will create an effective
learning environment for all styles.