Akal Business School

Akal University
Lecture Notes
on
Data Collection Methods
Prepared by: Dr. Rupinder Kaur
Subject: Business Research Methods
Institution: Akal Business School, Akal University
Session: 2025-2026
SOURCES OF DATA
1. Primary Sources
It is a collection of data from the source of origin. It provides the researcher with first-hand
quantitative and raw information related to the statistical study. In short, the primary sources
of data give the researcher direct access to the subject of research. For example, statistical data,
works of art, and interview transcripts. There are various sources such as Survey, interview,
observation, focus group techniques.
SURVEY METHOD
A survey is a method of collecting information from many people using questionnaires or
forms. It helps to understand opinions, preferences, or behaviours.
1. Personal Survey: A personal survey involves meeting each respondent face-to-face to
collect information directly. This method is time-consuming, so the number of people
that can be contacted is limited. It is usually used when there is enough time available
for research. The cost is high because it requires trained interviewers and travel
expenses. However, it provides very accurate results since the interviewer can explain
questions, ensure correct understanding, and observe the respondent’s reactions. This
method is especially useful when respondents are illiterate or find it difficult to fill out
questionnaires on their own. It is not suitable for covering large geographical areas due
to high time and cost requirements. Long questionnaires may cause fatigue and reduce
accuracy, but skilled interviewers can minimize errors and bias. Personal surveys are
effective for collecting spontaneous answers but require close supervision to maintain
data accuracy.
2. Mail Survey Method: A mail survey involves contacting respondents through the post
by sending them a questionnaire to collect their opinions or information. This method
allows researchers to reach a large number of respondents using available address
databases and is especially useful when respondents are spread over wide geographical
areas. It is a low-cost method since the main expense is postage. However, the response
rate is usually low, often below 20%, which affects accuracy. There is also a risk that
someone other than the intended respondent may fill out the questionnaire or that
questions may be misunderstood, leading to incorrect or inconsistent answers. Mail
surveys are best suited when enough time is available for responses to be returned. With
the use of modern communication methods such as fax, email, and courier services, the
process has become faster. This method requires minimal field staff, only a few data
entry operators, but it is limited to literate respondents and is therefore not suitable for
surveys involving illiterate or low-income populations such as those in slum areas.
3. Telephone Survey Method: A telephone survey involves collecting data by
establishing direct voice contact with respondents over the phone. This method allows
researchers to reach a fairly large number of people since it takes less time to contact
respondents compared to personal interviews. The cost is moderate, as it requires
skilled telephone operators and sometimes multiple calls if the respondent is not
available initially. The accuracy of this method is fairly high, with response rates often
comparable to or even better than personal interviews, depending on the skill of the
interviewer. Telephone surveys are suitable for quick data collection over wide areas
without the need for travel. However, they may not be ideal for very detailed or sensitive
 questions, and they exclude people without telephone access or those unwilling to
participate in phone interviews.
4. Internet Survey Method: An internet survey involves using the internet to collect data
from respondents through online platforms such as websites, forums, blogs, email
groups, or social media. It has no geographical limitations, allowing researchers to
reach respondents from anywhere in the world quickly and easily. The questionnaire
can be posted online, and participants can submit their responses electronically. This
method is modern, efficient, and cost-effective compared to traditional survey methods.
It also enables fast data collection and analysis. However, internet surveys are limited
to people with internet access and basic digital literacy, which may exclude some
groups. Despite this, it is one of the most popular and convenient methods in today’s
connected world.

OBSERVATION METHOD
In this method, data is collected by watching people, events, or situations directly without
asking questions. Eg. A researcher observes how customers behave in a shopping mall which
section they visit first, or how long they look at a product.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
1. Structured and Unstructured Observation
(a) Structured Observation: When observation is done under planned and controlled
conditions with a set format for recording data, specific conditions, and pre-decided aspects
to observe. Eg. A researcher observes 50 workers in a factory using a checklist to note how
many follow safety rules.
(b) Unstructured Observation: When observation is done freely without any fixed plan,
checklist, or rules. The observer watches and records whatever seems important. Eg.
A teacher casually observes how students behave during group work without using any
specific form.
2. Participant and Non-Participant Observation
(a) Participant Observation: The observer becomes part of the group being studied to
understand their experiences and behavior from the inside. Eg. A researcher joins a village
community for a few months to study their farming lifestyle.
(b) Non-Participant Observation: The observer does not take part in the group’s activities
only watches from outside. Eg. A researcher observes a classroom from the back without
interacting with students.
3. Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation
(a) Controlled Observation: It is done in a planned and artificial setting (like a laboratory)
with the help of tools or instruments. Variables are controlled to ensure accuracy. Eg.
Psychologists observe people’s reactions to different advertisements in a lab using eye-tracking
devices.
(b) Uncontrolled Observation: It is done in natural settings without controlling conditions or
using instruments. The observer just records naturally occurring behavior. Eg. Observing how
customers behave in a supermarket.
4. Disguised and Undisguised Observation
(a) Disguised Observation: When people do not know that they are being observed. This
helps avoid biased behavior. Eg. A store manager secretly watches customers through CCTV
to study shopping behavior.
(b) Undisguised Observation: When people know they are being observed. Eg.
A teacher observing students during a presentation when they know they are being graded.

INTERVIEW METHOD
Interview is face to face conversation with respondents. It is slow, expensive and takes people
away from regular work. Interviewer can not only record the statements the interviewee speaks
but also can observe the body language or non-verbal communication such as face-pulling,
hand gestures that add further meaning to spoken words. Interview is one of the popular
methods of research data collection. The term interview can be dissected into two terms as,
‘inter’ and ‘view’. The essence of interview is that one mind tries to read the other. The
interviewer tries to assess the interviewed in terms of the aspects studied or issues analyzed.
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply
in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
• Structured Interviews: In a structured interview, all the questions are planned in
advance, both in topic and order. The interviewer must ask the same set of questions to
every respondent without changing or adding anything. This ensures uniformity and
makes it easier to compare answers. Structured interviews are often used in surveys or
job interviews where consistency is important. For example, if a company wants to hire
a cashier, every candidate might be asked the same questions such as, “Do you have
experience handling money?” and “How do you deal with difficult customers?” This
helps the interviewer get clear, factual information from everyone in the same way.
• Semi-Structured Interviews: A semi-structured interview combines both fixed and
flexible questions. The interviewer prepares some main questions in advance but can
also add new ones during the conversation depending on the respondent’s answers. This
approach allows for both consistency and deeper exploration of topics. For example, a
teacher interviewing students about their study habits might have planned questions
like, “How many hours do you study each day?” but may also ask follow-up questions
such as, “Why do you prefer studying at night?” based on the student’s response. This
helps gather richer and more detailed information.
• Unstructured Interviews: In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not
follow a fixed set of questions. Instead, it is more like a casual conversation where the
interviewer freely explores topics as they come up. This method is useful when the
researcher wants to understand people’s thoughts, feelings, or experiences in depth. For
example, a psychologist might talk with a patient about their daily life without a specific
 question list to understand their emotions or problems more naturally. This type of
interview provides deep insights but can be harder to analyze because every
conversation is different.
• Focus Group Interviews: A focus group interview involves a small group of people
(usually 6–10) who discuss a topic or product together, guided by a moderator. The
interviewer presents questions or topics to the group and encourages discussion among
participants. This method helps to understand different opinions, attitudes, and group
dynamics. For example, a company launching a new soft drink might invite a group of
people to taste it and discuss what they like or dislike. The group discussion can reveal
ideas or reactions that might not come out in one-on-one interviews.

FOCUS GROUP TECHNIQUES

Focus groups gather qualitative data through guided discussions with small groups of
participants. A moderator facilitates the discussion to ensure relevance and engagement.
Typically, It involves 6–12 participants discussing a topic for 1–2 hours, guided by a set of
questions or prompts.
It is Commonly used in market research, healthcare and social sciences to explore group
dynamics, opinions and attitudes. Focus groups provide diverse perspectives and stimulate
discussion, uncovering collective insights.
OTHER METHODS
(a) Warranty Cards: Cards filled by customers when they buy a product, giving details like
usage and satisfaction. Eg. A refrigerator company collects warranty cards to know who buys
their products and where.
(b) Distributor Audits: Collecting sales and stock data from distributors or dealers. Eg. A
company checks monthly stock reports from dealers to understand product demand.
(c) Pantry Audits: Checking what products consumers have in their kitchen or pantry to know
their brand preferences. Eg. Researcher visits homes and notes how many packets of a specific
biscuit brand are kept.
(d) Consumer Panels: A fixed group of consumers is regularly asked to give opinions or
information over time. Eg. A panel of 100 households gives feedback every month on new
grocery products.
(e) Using Mechanical Devices: Machines or instruments are used to record data automatically.
Eg.
• Eye cameras track where a customer looks while seeing an advertisement.
• Audiometers measure how often people listen to certain radio programs.
(f) Projective Techniques: Indirect method to find people’s hidden feelings or motives using
imaginary situations or pictures. Eg. Showing a picture and asking, “What do you think this
person is doing?” to understand attitudes.
(g) Depth Interviews: One-to-one detailed discussion to explore personal views, emotions,
and motivations. Eg. Interviewing a few loyal customers deeply to know why they prefer a
particular brand.
(h) Content Analysis: Analyzing written, spoken, or visual content to identify patterns or
themes. Eg. Studying advertisements in newspapers to find how often “eco-friendly” terms are
used.

Secondary Sources
It is a collection of data from some institutions or agencies that have already collected the data
through primary sources. It does not provide the researcher with first-hand quantitative and raw
information related to the study. Hence, the secondary source of data collection interprets,
describes, or synthesizes the primary sources. For example, reviews, government websites
containing surveys or data, academic books, published journals, articles, etc.
• Published printed sources
• Books
• Journals/Periodicals
• Magazines and newspapers
• Published electronic sources like e -Journal, general websites, weblogs
• Unpublished personal records like Diaries, letters, Government records

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

QUESTIONNAIRE: This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of

big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public
organisations and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post)
to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form
or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
Types of a questionnaire
So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or
unstructured questionnaire. The structured questionnaire contains definite, concrete and direct
questions, whereas non-structured questionnaire may consist of partially completed questions
or statements. A non-structured questionnaire is often used as the interview guide, which is
non-directive.

Closed Form (Restricted) Questions: Closed form questions are those that give the respondent
a set of fixed answers to choose from, such as “Yes” or “No,” or options from a list. These
questions are simple, quick to answer, and easy to analyze because everyone answers using the
same choices. They also help keep the respondent focused on the topic. For example, a question
like “Do you watch TV daily? (a) Yes (b) No” is a closed form question. This type of question
is useful when the researcher needs clear, specific information in a short time.

Open Form (Unrestricted) Questions: Open form questions allow the respondent to answer
freely in their own words. This type of question helps to collect detailed and personal
information, showing the respondent’s true thoughts, opinions, or feelings. However, it takes
more time to answer and is harder to summarize or analyze because each response may be
different. For example, a question like “Why do you like watching TV?” lets the respondent
explain their reasons in detail.

Mixed Questionnaire: A mixed questionnaire includes both closed and open-ended questions.
It allows researchers to get both clear, factual information and detailed opinions in the same
survey. This type of questionnaire is very useful in social research because it combines the
strengths of both question types. For example, a question may start with “Do you watch TV
daily? (Yes/No)” followed by “If yes, which shows do you prefer?” This way, the researcher
gets both specific data and deeper insights.

Fact and Opinion Questionnaires: Fact and opinion questionnaires are divided into two types.
A fact questionnaire asks for factual information such as age, income, or education level. It
focuses only on real data. For example, “How many hours a day do you watch TV?” is a fact-
based question. On the other hand, an opinion questionnaire asks about a person’s views,
attitudes, or preferences. For example, “Do you think watching TV helps people learn new
things?” collects opinions rather than facts.

Pictorial and Verbal Questionnaires: A pictorial questionnaire uses pictures instead of words
to ask questions. This method is helpful for children or illiterate people who may not
understand written questions. For example, showing pictures of different fruits and asking the
respondent to tick the one they like most is a pictorial question. It helps make the survey more
engaging but can be lengthy. A verbal questionnaire, on the other hand, uses only written or
spoken words. It is suitable for literate respondents and is easier and shorter to prepare
compared to pictorial ones.

Essentials of a good questionnaire

• Short and Simple: The questionnaire should be as short as possible and easy to
understand. Only necessary questions should be included to save the respondent’s time.
• Logical Order: Questions should be arranged in a proper sequence, starting with easy
and general ones, and moving to more difficult or personal questions at the end.
• Avoid Complex Language: Technical terms, confusing words, or vague expressions
should not be used, as they may cause misunderstanding.
• Types of Questions: The questionnaire can include Yes/No (dichotomous), multiple-
choice, or open-ended questions. However, too many open-ended questions should be
avoided since they are harder to analyze.
• Control Questions: Some questions should be repeated or rephrased to check if the
respondent’s answers are consistent and reliable.
• Clarity and Relevance: Every question should be clear, specific, and directly related
to the research topic. Unnecessary or unrelated questions should be avoided.
 • Respect for Respondents: Personal or sensitive questions should be placed at the end
so that respondents feel comfortable while answering.

SCHEDULES
A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which are asked by the
interviewer or investigator personally. The order of questions, the language of the questions
and the arrangement of parts of the schedule are not changed. However, the investigator can
explain the questions if the respondent faces any difficulty. It contains direct questions as well
as questions in tabular form. Schedule is a formalized set of questions, statements and spaces
for answers, provided to the enumerators who ask questions to the respondents and note down
the answers.
From the above discussion the following salient points about schedule emerge:
• The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers
are noted down by him.
• The list of questions is a more formal document, it need not be attractive.
• The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.

TYPES OF SCHEDULES
1. Rating schedule: In the field of business guidance, psychological research, and social
research, the rating schedules are used to assess the attitudes, opinions, preferences, and other
like elements. As evident from the term ‘rating’, in these schedules, the value and trend of the
above mentioned qualities is measured. Eg. Employees rate their job satisfaction on a scale
from 1 to 5.
2. Documents schedule: The schedules of this type are used to obtain data regarding written
evidence and case histories. In these schedules, those terms are included which occur frequency
in documents and are to be generally found in case histories. Eg. A researcher studies hospital
case files to record how often certain diseases occur.
3. Institutional surveys forms or evolutional schedules: The use of these schedules, as is
evident from the name, is made to gather data about specialised institutions or agencies. The
form and the size of evolutional schedules is determined by the nature and the complexity of
the problems of an institution, more complex the problem, bigger the size of the schedule. Eg.
A survey form is used to evaluate the facilities and performance of different colleges.
4. Observation schedules: In these schedules, observer records the activities and responses of
an individual or a group under specific conditions. The observation schedules may need one or
more research worker to be completed. The main purpose of an observation schedules is to
verify some information. Eg. A researcher observes and records how shoppers behave while
selecting products in a supermarket.
5. Interview schedules: A fifth form of schedule is sometimes treated independently and at
other times considered included in the previous type. In an interview schedule, an interviewer
presents the questions of the schedule to the interviewers and records their response on blank
spaces. Eg. An interviewer asks farmers about crop yields and notes their answers on a
printed schedule.
ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD SCHEDULE
A good schedule must have the following features
• Content: Should cover questions or statements relating to all significant aspects of the
study.
• Context: Should suit the context in which it is applied. Different types of studies need
different schedules.
• Criterion: Should use sound logic in classifying respondents based opinions expressed.
• Construction: Should be constructed in such a way that questions statements progress
gradually and in order. Better it is sub-divided into parts, each part deeding with a
certain sub topic of the issue studied. For each objective, a separate part may be devoted.
• Language: Should be linguistically superbly designed. Clear and straight forward
language be used.
• Reliable: Should be reliable such that same results are obtained whenever the schedule
is used when everything else remains same.
• Mechanical Aspects: Paper used, margin space given, spacing, printing, size of letters,
etc. should be normal.
• Size: Should not too length nor too short. Should give fair coverage to the topic.
• Qualities to be Avoided: Long, complex, presumptuous (rude), personal,
embarrassing, morality oriented, and necessary questions must be avoided.
PROCESS FOR FORMULATING A SCHEDULE
1. Study the different aspects of the problem. The problem under study should first of
all be split up into various aspects. The determination of these aspects will depend upon
clear understanding of the problem under study.
2. Sub-divide the problem to get necessary information. Each aspect has again to be
broken up into a number of sub-parts. These sub-parts should be quite exhaustive to
give a full and complete picture of-the aspect under study.
3. Class questions. Care should be taken to see that the questions convey the exact sense.
Respondents will be willing to supply information without any hesitation, bias or
distortion of facts, if questions are exact and clear.
4. Serialization of Questions. In order to obtain well-organised information, it is
necessary that the questions should be presented to the respondents in a well-ordered
serial. It has been experienced to various field studies that the change in the order of
questions affects the answers adversely.
 5. Testing the validity of schedule. Whatever may be the degree of precaution taken,
some slips are based to be left out and these can be located when the schedule is put
into a reliability and validity test.
6. Division. The schedule be divided into adequate number of divisions. Introductory part,
instructional part, issues related parts, etc. are certain parts by which the schedule is
divided into parts.
7. Appropriate form of questions. Use appropriate forms of questions at appropriate
places. Open ended, close ended, pictorial, Yes or No (Questions), multiple choice
questions, etc. can be used.
ADVANTAGES OF SCHEDULE
1. High Response Rate: Since interviewers personally collect the information, the
chances of getting responses are very high compared to mailed questionnaires.
2. Suitable for Illiterate Respondents: This method can be used even when respondents
cannot read or write, as the interviewer fills the form.
3. Accurate and Reliable Data: Interviewers can explain the questions and clarify
doubts, leading to more accurate and complete answers.
4. Flexibility: The interviewer can modify or rephrase questions if the respondent does
not understand, without changing the meaning.
5. Verification of Respondent’s Reactions: Interviewers can observe non-verbal cues
(facial expressions, tone, hesitation), which provide valuable insights beyond the
written responses.
6. Detailed Information: Since it involves personal interaction, more detailed and deeper
information can be collected.
DISADVANTAGES OF SCHEDULES
1. Time-Consuming: Conducting personal interviews and filling schedules for each
respondent takes a lot of time, especially for large samples.
2. Expensive: The cost of training interviewers, travel, and supervision makes this
method more expensive than using questionnaires.
3. Interviewer Bias: Sometimes the interviewer’s tone, attitude, or personal opinions can
influence the respondent’s answers, affecting accuracy.
4. Limited Coverage: Because it requires face-to-face contact, the number of people who
can be covered is limited compared to online or postal methods.
5. Respondent Reluctance: Some respondents may hesitate to share personal or sensitive
information in face-to-face interviews.
6. Difficulty in Supervision: Monitoring the accuracy and honesty of all interviewers is
difficult, especially when the study area is large.
ELECTRO MECHANICAL DEVICES
Electro-mechanical devices are mechanical or electronic instruments used to collect data
indirectly, especially about human behavior, emotions, and reactions. They are widely used in
marketing research, psychology, and consumer studies. Modern business organizations,
particularly in developed countries, use these devices to obtain more accurate and unbiased
information about customers’ responses to various marketing stimuli such as advertisements,
packaging, and products.
1. Eye Cameras (Windows to the Mind): Eye cameras are designed to record the movement
and focus of the eyes of a respondent on specific parts of visual material such as pictures,
drawings, advertisements, or written text. They help in determining which parts of a display
attract the most attention and how long a person looks at each part.
Eg. A company may use an eye camera while testing a new advertisement to see which element
logo, slogan, or image draws the most attention from viewers. This helps advertisers improve
Ad layouts for better engagement.
Advantages:
• Provides accurate, scientific data on visual attention.
• Helps improve advertisement or product packaging designs.
• Removes bias as it records real eye movements instead of self-reported answers.
Limitations:
• Expensive to use and maintain.
• Requires trained professionals to operate and interpret the data.
• May make respondents uncomfortable or conscious while being observed.
2. Pupillometric Cameras (Windows to the Mind): Pupillometric cameras measure the
dilation (widening) of a respondent’s pupils in response to a visual or emotional stimulus. Since
pupil dilation indicates mental and emotional arousal, it helps measure interest and attention
levels.
Eg: While testing a new TV commercial, researchers use a pupillometric camera to observe
how much the pupils of viewers dilate at certain moments such as during emotional or exciting
scenes to determine which parts create the most engagement.
Advantages:
• Offers objective and physiological data on emotional response.
• Useful for understanding deep psychological reactions.
• Can help marketers identify which visuals evoke the strongest interest.
Limitations:
• Very sensitive and needs controlled lighting conditions.
• Costly and complex to administer.
 • Pupil dilation can also result from factors like light changes, not just interest, which
may affect accuracy.
3. Psychogalvanometer (Measuring Emotional Arousal Electrically): A
psychogalvanometer measures changes in the electrical resistance of the skin, known as the
galvanic skin response (GSR). These changes occur due to emotional excitement or stress when
a person views or experiences something stimulating.
Eg: Researchers may use a psychogalvanometer to measure how excited or nervous a person
becomes when watching a new product advertisement, trailer, or packaging design.
Advantages:
• Measures emotional arousal objectively and scientifically.
• Useful for studying hidden or unconscious emotional reactions.
• Helps in identifying which products or messages generate stronger feelings.
Limitations:
• Cannot determine whether the emotion is positive or negative only that excitement
occurred.
• Needs expert interpretation of data.
• May be affected by external factors such as temperature or humidity.
4. Motion Picture Cameras (Recording Movement for Analysis): Motion picture cameras
are used to record the physical movements and behavior of consumers while they are shopping
or interacting with products. These cameras are often hidden in stores to observe natural
customer behavior without influencing it.
Eg: A supermarket might use motion picture cameras to record how shoppers move through
aisles and what influences them to pick certain brands. This helps understand the impact of
product placement, packaging, or promotional displays.
Advantages:
• Provides real-life behavioral data without relying on verbal responses.
• Helps identify consumer buying patterns and store layout effectiveness.
• Enables marketers to make evidence-based decisions on product presentation.
Limitations:
• Raises privacy concerns if respondents are unaware of being recorded.
• Analysis of recorded footage is time-consuming and requires expertise.
• High cost of equipment and data processing.
5. Audiometers (Quantifying Hearing Ability): Audiometers are electronic devices used
mainly by broadcasting companies to record which television channels or programs a
household watch. The device is attached to a TV set to automatically record viewing habits and
channel preferences.
Eg: TV rating agencies like Nielsen use audiometers to collect data on audience viewership.
The data helps advertisers and broadcasters know which programs have higher popularity and
thus deserve higher advertising rates.
Advantages:
• Provides continuous and accurate records of audience behavior.
• Eliminates recall bias, as data is automatically collected.
• Helps networks and advertisers plan programs and advertisements effectively.
Limitations:
• Limited to households that agree to participate.
• High installation and maintenance cost.
• Cannot capture the viewer’s emotional reaction or level of attention.

Difference

Basis of Electro-Mechanical
Questionnaire Schedule
Comparison Devices

A set of written A list of questions Mechanical or electronic

questions which are filled in by the instruments used to collect
Meaning sent to respondents to interviewer during a data indirectly about
be answered and personal interview behavior, reactions, or
returned by them. with the respondent. preferences.

Interviewer fills it on Data is recorded

Respondent fills it by
Filled by behalf of the automatically by machines
themselves.
respondent. or devices.

Respondents must be Suitable for both Does not depend on literacy;

Respondent
literate to read and literate and illiterate responses are recorded
Literacy
write answers. respondents. mechanically.

Verbal responses
Physiological or behavioral
Nature of Mainly verbal or interpreted and
responses (eye movement,
Data written responses. recorded by
pulse, excitement, etc.)
interviewer.
Basis of Electro-Mechanical
Questionnaire Schedule
Comparison Devices

High cost – requires

Very low cost- Very high cost – requires
Cost trained interviewers,
inexpensive to prepare expensive equipment and
Involved travel, and
and send. technical experts.
supervision.

Less time; can be sent More time- Depends on the study setup;
Time
to many respondents at consuming due to usually time-consuming and
Required
once. personal interviews. complex.

May be less reliable More accurate as

Very accurate and objective,
Accuracy of due to interviewer explains
as data is directly recorded
Data misunderstanding or and clarifies
by instruments.
careless answers. questions.

Personal contact
Direct personal No direct contact; devices
Personal between researcher
contact through record reactions
Contact and respondent is not
interviewer. automatically.
necessary.

Eye camera, audiometer,

Structured interview
Examples / Mail or online survey psychogalvanometer,
schedules used in
Tools Used forms. pupillometric camera,
field surveys.
motion picture camera.

When detailed,
When large samples
reliable information When studying emotional,
and literate
Suitability is needed, or behavioral, or unconscious
respondents are
respondents are responses.
involved.
illiterate.

Minimal bias; mostly

Bias Respondent bias Interviewer bias may
mechanical or automated
Possibility possible. occur.
data.