BRICKS AND MASONRY BLOCKS

BRICK:
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also
used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined
using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90
mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS. With mortar thickness, the dimension of the
brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known as the nominal size of the
modular brick.
Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials,
but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are
made from expanded clay aggregate. In India, most commonly used, rectangular, standard size
of solid concrete block is 4″(100 mm), 6″(150 mm) and 8″ (200 mm) thick CMU.
Types of Bricks:
a) Classification of Bricks Based on Quality:

1. First Class Brick: The size is standard. The color of these bricks is uniform yellow
or red. It is well burnt, regular texture, uniform shape. The absorption capacity is
less than 10%, crushing strength is, 280 kg/cm2 (mean) where it is 245 kg/cm2
(minimum). It doesn’t have efflorescence. It emits a metallic sound when struck by
another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any fingernail
expression on the brick surface if one tries to do with a thumbnail. It is free from
pebbles, gravels or organic matters. It is generally used-

 in a building of long durability, say 100 years

 for building exposes to a corrosive environment;
 for making coarse aggregates of concrete.
2. Second Class Brick: The size is standard; color is uniform yellow or red. It is well
burnt, slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has a regular shape; efflorescence is not
appreciable. The absorption capacity is more than 10% but less than 15%. Crushing
strength is 175kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum is 154 kg/cm2. It emits a metallic
sound when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard enough
to resist any fingernail expression on the brick surface if one tries to do with a
thumbnail. It is used for the construction of one-storied buildings, temporary shed
when intended durabilityis not more than 15 years.
3. Third Class Brick: The shape and size are not regular. The color is soft and light
red colored. It is under burnt, slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has extensive
efflorescence. The texture is non-uniform. The absorption capacity is more than 15%
but less than 20%. The crushing strength is 140kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum
crushing strength is 105kg/cm2. It emits a dull or blunt sound when struck by another
similar brick or struck by a hammer. It leaves fingernail expression when one tries to
do with the thumbnail.
 First Class 1. Cement of lime mortar is used,
2. The surface and edges of bricks are sharp,
3. And the thickness of mortar joints doesn’t exceed 10mm
Second Class 1. Ground moulded bricks are used,
2. Bricks are rough and shape is slightly irregular,
3. The thickness of mortar joint is 12 mm
Third Class 1. Bricks are not hard, rough surface with distorted shape,
2. Used for temporary structures,
3. Used in places where rainfall is not heavy
b) Classification of Bricks Based on Building Process:

1. Unburnt Bricks: These are half burnt bricks. The color is yellow. The
strength is low. Theyare used as surki in lime terracing. They are used as soiling under
RCC footing or basement. Such bricks should not be exposed to rainwater.
2. Burnt Bricks: Burnt bricks are made by burning them in the kiln. First class,
Second-Class,Third-Class bricks are burnt bricks.
3. Over Burnt or Jhama Brick: It is often known as the vitrified brick as it is
fired at high temperature and for a longer period of time than conventional bricks. As
a result, the shape is distorted. The absorption capacity is high. The strength is higher
or equivalent to first class bricks. It is used as lime concrete for the foundation. It is
also used as coarse aggregate in the concrete of slab and beam which will not come in
contact withwater.

c) Classification of Bricks Based on Manufacturing Method:

1. Extruded Brick: It is created by forcing clay and water into a steel die, with
a very regular shape and size, then cutting the resulting column into shorter units with
wires before firing. It is used in constructions with limited budgets. It has three or four
holes constituting up to 25% volume of the brick.
2. Molded Brick: It is shaped in molds by hand rather being in the machine.
Molded bricks between 50-65mm are available instantly. Other size and shapes are
available in 6-8 weeks after the order.
3. Dry pressed Brick: It is the traditional types of bricks which are made by
compressing clay into molds. It has a deep frog in one bedding surface and shallow
frog in another.

d) Classification of Bricks Based on Raw Materials:

1. Burnt Clay Brick: It is obtained by pressing the clay in molds and fried and
dried in kilns. It is the most used bricks. It requires plastering when used in
construction works.
2. Fly ash clay Brick: It is manufactured when fly ash and clay are molded in
1000 degree Celsius. It contains a high volume of calcium oxide in fly ash. That is
why usually described as self-cementing. It usually expands when coming into
contact with moisture. It is less porous than clay bricks. It proved a smooth surface so it
doesn’t needplastering.
3. Concrete Brick: It is made of concrete. It is the least used bricks. It has low
compression strength and is of low quality. These bricks are used above and below
the damp proof course. These bricks are used can be used for facades, fences and
internal brickworks because of their sound reductions and heat resistance
qualities. It is also called mortar brick. It can be of different colors if the pigment
is added during manufacturing. It should not be used below ground.
4. Sand-lime Brick: Sand, fly ash and lime are mixed and molded under
 pressure. During wet mixing, a chemical reaction takes place to bond the mixtures.
Then they are placed in the molds. The color is greyish as it offers something of an
aesthetic view. It offers a smoother finish and uniform appearance than the clay bricks.
As a result, it also doesn’t require plastering. It is used as a load bearing members as it
is immensely strong.
5. Firebrick: It is also known as refractory bricks. It is manufactured from a
specially designed earth. After burning, it can withstand very high temperature without
affecting its shape, size, and strength. It is used for the lining of chimney and furnaces
where the usual temperature is expected to be very high.

e) Classification of Bricks Based on Using Location:

1. Facing Brick: The façade material of any building is known as facing brick.
Facings bricks are standard in size, are stronger than other bricks and also have better
durability. The color is red or brown shades to provide a more aesthetic look to the
building. There are many types of facing bricks which use different techniques and
technology. Facing bricks should be weather resistant as they are most generally
used on the exterior wall of buildings.
2. Backing Brick: These types of brick don’t have any special features. They are just
used
behind the facing bricks to provide support.

f) Classification of Bricks Based on Weather-resisting Capability:

1. Severe Weather Grade: These types of bricks are used in the countries
which are covered in snow most of the time of year. These bricks are resistant to any
kind of freeze-thawactions.
2. Moderate Weather Grade: These types of bricks are used in tropical
countries. They can withstand any high temperature.
3. No Weather Grade: These bricks do not have any weather resisting
capabilities and used on the inside walls.

g) Classification of Bricks Based on Their Using:

1. Common Bricks: These bricks are the most common bricks used. They
don’t have any special features or requirements. They have low resistance, low
quality, low compressive strength. They are usually used on the interior walls.
2. Engineering Bricks: These bricks are known for many reasons. They have
high compressive strength and low absorption capacity. They are very strong and
dense. They have good load bearing capacity, damp proof, and chemical resistance
properties. They have a uniform red color. They are classified as Class A, class B,
class C. Class A is the strongest but Class B is most used. They are used for mainly
civil engineering works like sewers, manholes, ground works, retaining walls, damp
proof courses, etc.

h) Classification of Bricks Based on Shape:

1. Bullnose Brick: These bricks are molded into round angles. They are used
for roundedquoin.
2. Airbricks: These bricks contain holes to circulate air. They are used on
suspended floorsand cavity walls.
3. Channel Bricks: They are molded into the shape of a gutter or channel.
They are used indrains.
 4. Coping Bricks: They can be half round, chamfered, Saddleback, angled
varied accordingto the thickness of the wall.
5. Cow Nose Bricks: Bricks having double bullnose known as Cow Nose Bricks.
6. Capping Bricks: These bricks are used to cap the tops of parapets or freestanding
walls.
7. Brick Veneers: These bricks are thin and used for cladding.
 8. Curved Sector Bricks: These are curved in shape. They are used in arcs, pavements,
etc.
9. Hollow Bricks: These bricks are around one-third of the weight of the normal
bricks. They are also called cellular or cavity bricks. Their thickness is from 20-25mm.
These bricks pave the way to quicker construction as they can be laid quickly compared
to the normalbricks. They are used in partitioning.
10. Paving Bricks: These bricks contain a good amount of iron. Iron vitrifies
bricks at low temperature. They are used in garden park floors, pavements. These
bricks withstand the abrasive action of traffic thus making the floor less slippery.
11. Perforated Bricks: These bricks contain cylindrical holes. They are very
light in [Link] preparation method is also easy. They consume less clay than the
other bricks. They can be of different shapes like round, square, rectangular. They are
used in the construction of the panels for lightweight, structures, and multistoried frame
structures.
12. Purpose Made Bricks: For specific purposes, these bricks are made. Splay
and can’t bricks are made for doors and window jambs. Engineering bricks are made
for civil engineering constructions such as sewers, manholes, retaining walls. Fire
bricks are made for chimneys and fireworks. Ornamental bricks are made to use for
cornices, corbels. Arch bricks are used in arcs.

i) Classification of Bricks Based on Region:

1. Cream City Bricks: These bricks are from Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

2. London Stock: These bricks are used in London.
3. Dutch: These are from the Netherlands.
4. Nanak Shahi Bricks: These are from India.
5. Roman: These are used in Roman constructions,
6. Staffordshire Blue Brick: These are from England.

MASONRY BLOCKS:
Masonry block is an important component in construction and building materials in many parts
of the world. Concrete block is made from Portland Cement, aggregates and water. It is also
known as a concrete masonry unit (CMU). As a building material, concrete offers several
attractive characteristics to designers and builders. Standard size of
Brick—A solid or hollow manufactured masonry unit of either concrete, clay or stone.
Concrete brick—A concrete hollow or solid unit smaller in size than a concrete block
Concrete block—A hollow or solid concrete masonry unit. Larger in size than a concrete
brick.

Block walls have higher density as compared to brick constructions and hence they offer more
soundproofing. Their efficient acoustic insulation is a big help if your home is constantly
surrounded by noise that could keep you from getting a sound sleep.

Types of Concrete Blocks or Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) Used in Construction:

 Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks:
 Concrete Stretcher Blocks.
 Concrete Corner Blocks.
 Concrete Pillar Blocks.
 Jamb Concrete Blocks.
  Partition Concrete Block.
 Lintel Blocks.
 Frogged Brick Blocks.

Field Tests on Brick:

A field test on bricks gives the idea about its basic quality based on its shape, size and colour
at first observation without any big appliances. They are the very common and easiest way to
check the quality of brick. Field tests of brick are very helpful on the site. Some very common
tests of brick that is followed to find if brick is good at first observation are as follows:
 Shape and Size of Clay Bricks:
The clay bricks should have a uniform rectangular plan surface, as per standard size and sharp
straight edges. BSI recommends the standard size of brick is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm and
constructional size is 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm.

 Visual inspection:

In this test bricks are closely inspected for its shape. The bricks of good quality should be
uniform in shape and should have truly rectangular shape with sharp edges.

 Hardness of Clay Bricks:

The clay bricks should be sufficiently hard when scratched by a finger-nail no impression
should be left on the brick surface.
 Colour of Clay Bricks:

The clay bricks should have a uniform deep red colour throughout. It indicates the
uniformityof chemical composition and the quality of burning of the bricks.

 Texture and compactness of Clay Bricks:

The surfaces should not be so smooth to cause skidding of mortar. The clay brick should
havea pre-compact, homogeneous and uniform texture. A broken surface should be free form
cracks, holes grits or lumps of lime.

 Soundness of Clay Bricks: When two clay bricks are stuck together, a metallic ringing
sound
should come.
 Structure:
A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous, compact and
free from any defects such as holes, lumps etc.
 Thermal Conductivity of Clay Bricks:

Generally, we are not conducting any test for thermal conductivity because the thermal
conductivity of clay brick is low, i.e., it protects from heat.

 Basic Strength of Clay Bricks:

When dropped flat on the hard ground from a height of about one meter, clay bricks should
not break.

Laboratory Tests on Brick:

Laboratory tests on brick determine the mechanical properties of brick and give a scientific
approach to ensure the quality of bricks. It is essential while purchasing the brick and examine
the properties for the quality of construction.

Followings brick tests are performed in the laboratory to determine the quality of brick.

1. Water Absorption of Bricks:

The brick is porous by nature and Porosity is the ability to release and absorb moisture.
Therefore, it tends to absorb the water or moisture. It’s an important and useful property of
brick. But if brick absorbs more water than the recommended result, than it affects the strength
of brick as well as durability of the structure and of course will damage plaster and paint over
walls.

(a) Use of Water Absorption of Bricks:

Water absorption test is performed to know the percentage of water absorption of bricks.
(b) Recommended Result of Water Absorption of Bricks:
Water absorption of bricks should not more than 20 % by its dry weight.
(c) Why Bricks Fails in Water Absorption? & What if Test Fails?
If brick fails in the water absorption test, possible reasons are like manufacturing error,
insufficient burning, error in clay composition etc. and If brick fails in water absorption as well
as efflorescence than never never never use those bricks because you will land in permanent
problems and it will be very difficult to solve them.
(d) Standard Guidelines for Water Absorption Test of Bricks:
There various standard guidelines available for water absorption test of bricks such as IS 3495
(Part 2) 1992, ASTM C 67, BS 3921:1985.
(e) Apparatus of Water Absorption Test of Brick:
Water bath, weight balance, and oven are required for performing this test

2. Compressive Strength of Brick:

The compressive strength of the brick is the most essential property of the bricks because in
the construction, bricks are widely used in masonry and it also plays a significant role as a load
bearing component.
When bricks are used in any structure, the bottom-most layer of the brick will be subjected to
the highest compressive stress. Therefore, it is essential to know that any particular brick will
be able to withstand that load or not.
(a) Use of Compressive Strength of Brick:
This test is performed to know the strength of bricksbecause it affects the overall structure in
the way of quality, durability and serviceability.
(b) Recommended Result of Compressive Strength Test of Brick:
Test result recommendations are as follows:
 For first class bricks, it should not less than 10 N/mm2 (102 kg/cm2).
 For second class bricks, it should not less than 7 N/mm2 (71 kg/cm2).
 For third class bricks, it should not less than 3.5 N/mm2 (36 kg/cm2).
In India, the northern and the eastern region produce bricks having good compressive strength
than the western region because the western region has black cotton soil, while the soil is good
in Gangetic region.
Why Compressive Strength Test Fails? & What if Test Fails?
If the test result is not as per recommendation, there are many reasons behind it such as the
clay composition, degree of burning like over burning or insufficient burning, error in the
testing appliance or testing procedure etc.
If bricks fail in strength as well as water absorption test than do not use [Link] bricks are irregular
in some minor shape/size than it can be corrected with mortar. If not then you can consult your
brick supplier or brick manufacturer for replacing it.

3. Efflorescence:

This test should be conducted in a well-ventilated room. The brick is placed vertically in a dish
30 cm x 20 cm approximately in size with 2.5 cm immersed in distilled water. The whole water
is allowed to be absorbed by the brick and evaporated through it. After the bricks appear dry,
a similar quantity of water is placed in the dish, and the water is allowed to evaporate as
before. The brick is to be examined after the second evaporation and reported as follows:
  Nil: When there is no perceptible deposit of salt
 Slight: When not more than 10% of the area of brick is covered with salt
 Moderate: When there is heavy deposit covering 50% of the area of the brick
but
unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
 Heavy: When there is heavy deposit covering more than 50% of the area of the
brickaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
 Serious: When there is heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and/or
flakingof the surface and this deposition tends to increase in the repeated wetting of the
specimen.
Bricks for general construction should not have more than slight to moderate efflorescence.

4. Dimension tolerance:

Twenty bricks are selected at random to check measurement of length, width and height.
These dimensions are to be measured in one or two lots of ten each as shown in figure.
Variation in dimensions is allowed only within narrow limits, ±3% for class one and ±8% for
other classes.

Properties of Brick:
The essential properties of bricks may be conveniently discussed under the following four
headings: physical, mechanical, thermal and durability properties.

(1) Physical Properties of Bricks:

These properties of bricks include shape, size, color, and density of a brick.
 (i) Shape:
The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp
[Link] surface of the bricks is regular and even.

(ii) Size:
The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to
placein the same country.

In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm which with

mortarjoint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm.
These dimensions have been found very convenient in handling and making quantity
estimates. Five hundred such bricks will be required for completing 1 m3 brick
masonry.

(iii) Color.
The most common color of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from
deepred to light red to buff and purple.

Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow color is often
indicativeof under-burning.

(iv) Density.
The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used
andthe method of brick molding (soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.).
In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3. A single
brick(19 x 9 x 9 cm) will weigh between 3.2 to 3.5 kg. Depending upon its density.

Mechanical Brick Properties

Compressive Strength of Bricks:

It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in load-bearing walls.

The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and degree
ofburning. It may vary from 3.5 N/mm2 to more than 20 N/mm2 in India.
It is specified under the I.S. codes that an ordinary type building brick must possess a
minimumcompressive strength of 3.5 N/mm2.
The first and 2nd class bricks shall have a compressive strength not less than 7 N/mm2 and
14N/mm2 respectively.

Absorption Value:
This property is related to the porosity of the brick.
True Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of pores to the gross volume of the
sampleof the substance.
Apparent porosity, more often called Absorption value or simply absorption, is the
quantity of water absorbed by the (brick) sample. This is expressed in percentage terms of
 the dry weight of the sample: Absorption=W2 – W1 / W1 x 100.
Where W2 is weight after 24 hours of immersion in water and W1 is the oven dry weight
ofthe sample.
The absorption values of bricks vary [Link] is, however, recommended that for first class
bricks, they shall not be greater than 20 percent and for ordinary building bricks, not greater
than 25 percent.
The absorption characteristic of bricks effects their quality in many ways:
Firstly: higher porosity means fewer solid materials; hence, strength is reduced.
Secondly: higher absorption will lead to other water-related defects such as frost-action and
efflorescence.
Thirdly: higher absorption results in deeper penetration of water which becomes a sourceof
dampness.
Efflorescence:
It is a common disfiguring and deteriorating process of bricks in hot and humid climates.
Brick surface gets covered with white or grey coloured patches of salts. These salts are
present in the original brick clay.

When rain water penetrates into the bricks, the salts get easily dissolved. After the rains,
evaporation starts.

The salts move out along with the water and form thin encrustations on the surface of the
bricks.

Salts which are commonly precipitated during efflorescence are: sulphates of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium.

It is why great emphasis should be laid while testing the chemical composition of the clay
forbrick manufacturing.

CEMENT
CEMENT:

A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to
other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind
fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (gravel) together. Cement mixed with fine
aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with fine aggregate and coarse aggregate,
produces concrete. Concrete is the most widely used material in existence and is behind only
water as the planet'smost-consumed resource.
Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime or calcium silicate based,
which can be characterized as non-hydraulic or hydraulic respectively, depending on the
ability of the cement to set in the presence of water.
Non-hydraulic cement does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it dries
and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical
reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral
hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from
chemical attack. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects the
hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was
found by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium
oxide).
The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium
(Roman concrete, also called opus caementicium, was a material used in construction in
Ancient Rome. Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement. It is durable due to
its incorporation of pozzolanic ash, which prevents cracks from spreading), used to describe
masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as
binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized (reduce to fine particles) brick supplements that
were added to theburnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum,
cimentum, cäment, and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as
cements in concrete.
World production is about four billion tonnes per year, of which about half is made in China.
If the cement industry were a country, it would be the third largest carbon dioxide emitter in
the world with up to 2.8 billion tonnes, surpassed only by China and the United States. The
initial calcination reaction (at or above the thermal decomposition temperature) in the
production of cement is responsible for about 4% of global CO2 emissions. The overall
process is responsible for about 8% of global CO2 emissions, as the cement kiln in which the
reaction occurs is typically fired by coal or petroleum coke due to the luminous flame
required to heat the kiln by radiant heat transfer. As a result, the production of cement is a
major contributorto climate change.
HYDRAULIC CEMENT:
By far the most common type of cement is hydraulic cement, which hardens by hydration
of the clinker minerals when water is added. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland cement)
are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides. The four main mineral phases of the clinker,
abbreviated in the cement chemist notation, being:
C3S: Tri Calcium Silicate (Alite) (3CaO·SiO2);
C2S: Di Calcium Silicate (Belite) (2CaO·SiO2);
C3A: Tri Calcium Aluminate (celite)
(3CaO·Al2O3);
C4AF: Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrite (Brownmillerite) (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3).
The silicates are responsible for the cement's mechanical properties — the tricalcium
aluminate and Tetra Calcium Alumino Ferrite are essential for the formation of the liquid
phase during the sintering (firing) process of clinker at high temperature in the kiln. The
chemistry of these reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research.
First, the limestone (calcium carbonate) is burned to remove its carbon,
producing lime (calcium oxide) in what is known as a calcination reaction. This single
chemical reaction is a major emitter of global carbon dioxide emissions.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The lime reacts with silicon dioxide to produce dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate.
2CaO + SiO2 → 2CaO·SiO2
3CaO + SiO2 → 3CaO·SiO2
The lime also reacts with aluminum oxide to form tricalcium aluminate.
3CaO + Al2O3 → 3CaO·Al2O3
The lime also reacts together with aluminum oxide, and ferric oxide to form cement.
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → 4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3 (cement)

NON-HYDRAULIC CEMENT:
A less common form of cement is non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium
oxide mixed with water), hardens by carbonation in contact with carbon dioxide, which is
present in the air (~ 412 vol. ppm ≃ 0.04 vol. %). First calcium oxide (lime) is
produced from calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) by calcination at temperatures above
825 °C(1,517 °F) for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) mixing it with water to make slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide):
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically called setting),
thecarbonation starts:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
This reaction is slow, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low
(~ 0.4 millibar). The carbonation reaction requires that the dry cement be exposed to air, so
the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This process is
called the lime cycle.

PORTLAND CEMENT:
Portland cement, a form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement in
general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate)
with other materials (such as clay) to 1,450 °C (2,640 °F) in a KILN, in a process
known as calcination that liberates a molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate
to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which then chemically combines with the other
materials in the mix to form calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The
resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into
a powder to make ordinary Portland cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often
referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and most
non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is to make concrete. Concrete is a
composite material made of cement, aggregate (gravel and sand), and water. As a construction
 material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape, and once it hardens, can be a structural (load
bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
PORTLAND CEMENT BLEND:
Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement producers,
but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete
mixing plant.
Portland blast-furnace slag cement, or blast furnace cement (ASTM C595 and EN 197-1
nomenclature respectively), contains up to 95% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with
the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength,
but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases
and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting
and low-heat cements.
Portland-fly ash cement contains up to 40% fly ash under ASTM standards (ASTM C595),
or 35% under EN standards (EN 197–1). The fly ash is pozzolanic, [Pozzolans are a broad
class of siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess little or
no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water,
react chemically with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) at ordinary temperature to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties. The quantification of the capacity of a
pozzolan to react with calcium hydroxide and water is given by measuring its pozzolanic
activity. Pozzolana are naturally occurring pozzolans of volcanic origin. A siliceous volcanic
ash used to produce hydraulic cement / Any of various powdered substances that react with
lime to form strengthening or enhancing compounds in cement. Both natural (Volcanic ashes
and pumices) and artificial (man-made, eg. metakaolin, fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash,
etc) materials show pozzolanic activity and are used as supplementary cementitious
materials (SCM)], so that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a
lower concrete water content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality
cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.
Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where
volcanic ashes are available (e.g., Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines), these cements are
often the most common form in use. The maximum replacement ratios are generally defined
as for Portland-fly ash cement.
Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high
strengths, and cements containing 5–20% silica fume are occasionally produced, with 10%
being the maximum allowed addition under EN 197–1. However, silica fume is more
usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.[45]
Masonry cements are used for preparing brick laying mortars and stuccos (decorative
coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls), and must not be used in concrete. They are
usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other
ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, water
proofers,and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid
and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of masonry cement in North America are
plastic cements and stucco cements. These are designed to produce a controlled bond with
masonry blocks.
Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually
sulfo-aluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage normally
encountered in hydraulic cements. This cement can make concrete for floor slabs (up to 60
 m square) without contraction joints.
White blended cements may be made using white clinker (containing little or no iron) and
white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin.
Colored cements serve decorative purposes. Some standards allow the addition of pigments
to produce colored Portland cement. Other standards (e.g., ASTM) do not allow pigments in
Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as blended hydraulic cements.
Very finely ground cements are cement mixed with sand or with slag or other pozzolan
type minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can have the same
physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement, particularly due to their
increased surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use
up to 50% less energy (and thus less carbon emissions) to fabricate than ordinary Portland
cements.[
TYPES OF CEMENT (Other cements)

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Quick setting cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulfates resisting cement
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
8. High Alumina Cement
9. White Cement
10. Colored cement
11. Air Entraining Cement
12. Expansive cement
13. Hydrographic cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

The principal raw materials used in the manufacture of Ordinary Portland Cement are:

1. Argillaceous or silicates of alumina in the form of clays and shales.

2. Calcareous or calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, chalk and marl
which is amixture of clay and calcium carbonate.
The ingredients are mixed in the proportion of about two parts of calcareous materials to
one part of argillaceous materials and then crushed and ground in ball mills in a dry state or
mixed in wet state. The dry powder or the wet slurry is then burnt in a rotary kiln at a
temperature between 1400 degree C to 1500-degree C. the clinker obtained from the kiln is
first cooled and then passed on to ball mills where gypsum is added and it is ground to the
requisite fineness according to the class of product.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC):
Portland Pozzolana cement is integrated cement which is formed by synthesising
(combining) OPC cement with pozzolanic materials in a certain proportion. It is
 commonly known as PPC cement. In this article we discuss about the properties,
manufacture, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of Portland Pozzolana
cement.
Rapid Hardening Cement:
Rapid hardening cement is a particular type of cement that is used in exceptional cases
of concrete pouring. As the name implies, rapid hardening cement needs the shortest
time to set up and consolidate. It achieves higher strength on lesser days. With such, it can
attainseven days strength in only three days.
Quick setting cement:
Quick Setting Cement (QSC) is a special cement formulation that develops a rapid
compressive strength and significantly reduces the waiting on cement (WOC)
time compared to traditional cement systems. This cement loses its plasticity quicker
thanordinary Portland cement, but does not achieve a higher rate of strength.
Low Heat Cement:
Low heat cement is special tailored cement which generates low heat of hydration
during setting. It is manufactured by modifying the chemical composition of normal
Portland cement. In this article we discuss about the composition, properties,
characteristics, uses and advantages of low heat cement.
Sulphate resisting cement:
The sulphate resisting cement is the cement which has the capability to resist against
sulphate attack by introducing low C3A and relatively low C4AF content in the
cement. The specification for sulphate cement content should not allow C3A content
morethan 5 percent.
Blast Furnace Slag Cement:
Blast furnace slag cement is the mixture of ordinary Portland cement and fine
granulated blast furnace slag obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of steel
with percent under 70% to that of cement. Ground granulated blast furnace slag cement
(GGBFS) is a fine glassy granule which contain cementitious properties.

High Alumina Cement:

High alumina cement refers to a fast-hardening, high-strength, heat-resistant and
corrosion-resistant cementitious material. All clinker based on calcium aluminate and
alumina content of about 50% and ground hydraulic cementitious material are called
highalumina cement.

White Cement:

The manufacturing process of white cement is same as that of grey cement, but the
selection of raw material is an important part in the manufacturing process. The
oxides of chromium, manganese, iron, copper, vanadium, nickel and titanium imparts
the grey colour to the cement. In white cement manufacture, these raw materials are
kept to least percentage. Limestone and clay are used as a prominent raw material for
the manufactureof white cement. The manufacture process is same as that of OPC
cement, the only differences are the heat required for the burning of raw material is
more and fineness is more.
Coloured cement:
Coloured Cement may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with
ordinary cement. The amount of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 per cent. If
thispercentage exceeds 10 per cent, the strength of cement is affected.
1. The chromium oxide gives green colour.
2. The cobalt imparts blue colour.
3. The ton oxide in different proportions gives brown, red or yellow colour
4. The manganese oxide is used to produce black brown coloured cement
The coloured cements are widely used for finishing of floors, external surfaces.
artificialmarble, window sill slabs, textured panel faces, stair treads, etc.
Air Entraining Cement:
Air-entrained portland cement is a special cement which has air bubbles introduced in
the cement or concrete that provides the space for expansion of minute droplets of
waters in the concrete due to freezing and thawing and protects from cracks and damage
of concrete. In this article we discuss about manufacture, air entraining agents,
properties, advantagesand disadvantages.
Advantages of Air-Entrained Cement
 Workability of concrete increases.
 Use of air entraining agent reduces the effect of freezing and thawing.
 Bleeding, segregation and laitance in concrete reduces.
 Entrained air improves the sulphate resisting capacity of concrete.
 Reduces the possibility of shrinkage and crack formation in the concrete surface.

Expansive cement:
Expansive cement is special type of cement when mixed with water, which forms a
paste that tends to increase in volume to a significantly greater degree than Portland
cement paste after setting. The expansion of the cement mortar or concrete is
compensated for the shrinkage losses. In this article we study about the manufacture,
properties, types and usesof expansive cement.
Hydrographic cement:

Hydrographic cement Hydrographic cement prepares by mixing water-repelling

chemicals and has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling
water and unaffected during monsoon or rains. Hydrophobic cement mainly uses for the
construction of water structures such as dams, water tanks, spillways, water retaining
structures, etc.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Lime (CaO) 60 to 67%

Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25%

Alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8%

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6%

Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4%

Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1 to 3%

Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5 to 1.3%

Physical Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement

Properties Values

Specific Gravity 3.16

Normal Consistency 29%

Initial Setting time 65min

Final Setting time 275 min

Fineness 330 kg/m2

Soundness 2.5mm

Bulk Density 830-1650 kg/m3

BOGUES COMPOUNDS:
When water is added to cement, it react with the ingredients of the cement chemically
andresults in the formation of complex chemical compounds terms as BOGUES
compounds.
1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Tri-Calcium
Aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3 or C3A) ------------------------------------------- 8-12%
2. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Tetra Calcium
Alumino Ferrate (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 or C4AF) ------------------------- 6-10%
 3. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Tri-Calcium Silicate
(3CaO.SiO2 or C3S) --------------------------------------------------------- 30-50%
4. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Di-Calcium Silicate
(2CaO.SiO2 or C2S) ---------------------------------------------------------- 20-45%

HYDRATION OF CEMENT:
When cement, water, aggregate, and additives are mixed together, a significant heat
increase occurs. This is due to the exothermic process in the reaction between cement and
water (calledhydration).
Measuring the concrete temperature over time enables you to know how far the concrete is
in the hydration process (Concrete Maturity) and thereby also an estimated concrete strength.
Thehydration process is divided into five phases:

Phase 1: Initial Mixing Reaction

Initial after mixing the cement and water comes into contact with each other, a peak in
temperature happens. The aluminate (C3A) reacts with H2O (Calcium and sulfate ions) to
formettringite (aluminate hydrate). The release of the energy from these reactions causes the
initialpeak.
Phase 2: Dormancy
A result of the reaction described in phase 1 is a surface coating of the cement particles.
This coating keeps increases, but also slows down the reaction (hydration) as the access to
H2O isn’t as good as when the concrete was mixed. The amount of hydrated concrete keeps
increasing on a steady level while the surface of the concrete keeps fluid.
This is why this phase is used for transporting and pouring the concrete, as the concrete
stays on a fluid level. The length of this period depends on each individual concrete mix and
can, therefore, be optimized depending on the application like winter concreting, length of
transport,etc.
This phase ends with an initial set of the concrete.
Phase 3: Strength Acceleration
A heat increase happens due to the reaction between calcium silicate (C3S and C2S) which
creates the silicate hydrate CSH (heat increase also caused by other minor reactions). The
creation of CSH also has a major impact on the concrete strength during this phase.
In the case of for example mass concrete application, it can be very important to monitor the
internal temperature variances, as the concrete temperature during this phase can increase
rapidly to reach internal temperatures like 70-80C (in some cases even higher). It is
normally not recommended to exceed temperatures at around 70C.
Phase 4: Speed reduction
A maximum temperature has now been reached and the availability of free particles is now
reduced and therefore slows down the temperature increase.
This phase often ends with the desired strength and the formwork around the concrete can
now be removed. Monitoring of concrete maturity and temperature and therefore enable the
user with the exact time where this is possible.
Phase 5: Steady Development / Post Formwork
The hydration process is now slowed down and will continue slowly to finish the remaining
 available cement and water particles. The formwork is now often removed and the concrete
will now over time (can take a long time) finish the hydration process and reach final
strengths(can take weeks or months).
Testing of cements:
Laboratory Tests of Cement:
1. Fineness Test
2. Consistency Test
3. Setting Time Test
4. Strength Test
5. Soundness Test
6. Heat of Hydration Test
7. Tensile Strength Test
8. Chemical Composition TestField Tests of Cement

The following tests should undergo before mixing the cement at construction sites:

Colour Test of Cement

The colour of the cement should not be uneven. It should be a uniform grey colour with a
lightgreenish shade.
Presence of Lumps
The cement should not contain any hard lumps. These lumps are formed by the absorption
of moisture content from the atmosphere. The cement bags with lumps should be avoided in
construction.
MORTAR

Several different tests are needed to estimate the stability and strength of a structure, from the
soil it will stand on to the bricks or concrete that will form it. But what about mortar, the material
that binds it all together? There are a variety of ways to perform mortar testing, many of which
are similar to how you would test aggregates, concrete or cement.

1.1 Types of Mortar:

1. Cement Mortar
2. Lime Mortar
3. Surki Mortar
4. Gauged Mortar
5. Mud Mortar

Cement Mortar
Cement mortar is a type of mortar where cement is used as binding material and sand is used as
fine aggregate. Depending upon the desired strength, the cement to the sand proportion of
cement mortar varies from 1:2 to 1:6.
Lime Mortar
Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as binding
material and sand is used as fine aggregate. The lime to the sand proportion of cement mortar is
kept 1:2. The pyramids at Giza are plastered with lime mortar.

Gauged Mortar
Gauged mortar is a type of mortar where cement and lime both are used as binding material and
sand is used as fine aggregate. Basically, it is a lime mortar where cement is added to gain
higher strength. The process is known as gauging. The cement to the lime proportion varies
from 1:6 to 1:9. Gauged mortar is economical than cement concrete and also possess higher
strength than lime mortar.
Surki Mortar
Surkhi is an artificial pozzolanic material (i.e. Pozzolans are a broad class of siliceous or
siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess little or no cementitious value
but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react chemically
with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties (The pozzolanic reaction is the chemical reaction that occurs in portland cement upon
the addition of pozzolans) made by powdering bricks or burnt clay balls. Surkhi is used for
making waterproof cement mortars and concrete. They also make the concrete more resistant
to alkalis and salt solutions. Surkhi is used as a substitute for sand for concrete and mortar,
andhas almost the same function as of sand but it also imparts some strength and
hydraulicity. Surkhi is made by grinding to powder burnt bricks, brick-bats or burnt clay; under-
burnt or over- burnt bricks should not be used, nor bricks containing high proportion of sand.
When clay is especially burnt for making into surkhi, an addition of 10 to 20 per cent of quick
lime will improve its quality; small clay balls are made for burning.

Surki mortar is a type of mortar where lime is used as binding material and surki is used as fine
aggregate. Surki mortar is economic.
Mud Mortar
Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and sawdust, rice husk
or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is useful where lime or cement is not
available.

Is Mortar Testing Necessary?

While there are ASTM methods specifically designed for masonry mortar testing, there is not a
code requirement for testing mortar. Neither the International Building Code (IBC) nor the
Masonry Building Code call for mortar testing on job sites or in labs. Some specifiers will still
call for mortar strength testing, so it can be performed on a case-by-case basis. Mortar may only
play a small part in contributing to structural capacity, but it's still important to determine
whether it meets the physical property requirements of a project, including strength.

Types of Mortar Testing

There are several tests that can be performed on both plastic and hardened mortar to determine
ideal mix ratios and strength. The tests listed below are a high-level overview, so be sure to
consult ASTM C 780, which outlines the specifics of each, to help you learn more about a mortar
sample's physical properties.

1. Air Content
Air content tests are commonly specified for concrete and cement in areas that are prone to frost
they can also be specified for mortar. Repetitive tests using pressure meters or "roll-o-meters"
help determine if air content levels change due to mixing consistency and mixing time in order to
find the ideal level of air content both in the field and in the lab.

2. Board Life
Board life is an especially crucial form of mortar testing because it describes the time frame of
usability for mortar after it's removed from a mixer and placed on a mortarboard. Mortar begins
to lose moisture and stiffen once it's in open air, so it needs to be placed quickly to ensure it
bonds properly. While time frame determination is important, this test also reveals whether
mortar will be acceptable for use once completely hardened — if it's too stiff, it won't work.

3. Compressive Strength
Compressive strength tests are performed on mortar once it has hardened, and can help
determine the load a sample will be able to bear. These tests are better suited to a laboratory
since field testing may indicate less approximate mortar strengths.
4. Consistency
Consistency testing helps identify variations between batches of mortar mix, both in mix
materials and mix time. Mortar testing equipment, like a mortar penetrometer, is generally used
to determine consistency based on the depth it can penetrate into the mortar sample. While
inconsistent batches don't indicate that the materials used are improper, they can suggest that
poor control was exercised during mortar batching and mixing.

5. Mortar-Aggregate Ratio
This test helps determine whether cement, sand and water are added properly and consistently to
each batch of mortar, a bit like the consistency test. But, while the tests might be similar, mortar-
aggregate ratio testing is performed solely in a laboratory, after mortar mix samples are obtained
from a job site and sent in to be measured.

6. Water Retention
Water retention tests measure the plastic life of mortar. The longer the plastic life, the greater the
amount of time a mason has to lay and adjust the mortar/masonry unit before the mortar hardens.
These tests are performed in a laboratory.
CONCRETE

Concrete, in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically inert particulate

substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is bonded together
by cement and water.

Production Process of Concrete:

A good quality concrete is essentially a heterogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the
cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The coarser aggregate
acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate.
The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the mixture is aided by
the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the use of admixtures.
Most of the properties of the hardened concrete depend on the care exercised at every stage of
the manufacture of concrete. A rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the
essence of the mix design. However, it may not guarantee of having achieved the objective of th
e quality concrete work. The aim of quality control is to ensure the production of con crete of
uniform strength from batch to batch. This requires some rules to be followed in the various
stages of concrete production and are discussed as follows. The stages of concrete production
are:
1. Batching or measurement of materials
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing

1. Batching of Materials
For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used.
The aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of 3 percent of batch
quantity and the admixtures by 5 per cent of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent methods
of batching materials, the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors affecting the
choice of batching method are the size of job, required production rate, and required standards of
batching performance. For most important works weigh batching is recommended.
a) Volume Batching
b) Weigh Batching

2. Mixing

 Hand Mixing
 Machine Mixing
 Tilting Mixers
 Non-tilting Mixer
 Reversing Drum Mixer
 Pan-type or Stirring Mixer
 Transit Mixer

3. Transporting
Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing is
permitted if trucks with agitator and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for transporting
concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during transportation and
placement. The methods adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the size and importance
of the job, the distance of the deposition place from the mixing place, and the nature of the
terrain. Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below:

 Mortar Pan
 Wheel Barrow
 Chutes
 Dumper
 Bucket and Ropeway
 Belt conveyor
 Skip and Hoist
 Pumping

4. Placing

To achieve quality concrete, it should be placed with utmost care securing the uniformity
achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. Research has shown
that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive strength provided the
concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather delay of half to one hour
is allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold weather it may be several hours. The various
situations in which concrete is placed are discussed below.

 Foundations (Sub Structure)

Concrete foundations for walls and columns are provided below the ground surface. Before
placing the concrete in the foundation all the loose earth, roots of trees etc., are removed. If the
surface is found dry it is made wet so that earth does not absorb water from concrete. On the
other hand if the foundation bed is wet the water and mud is removed and cement is sprinkled
before placing concrete.

 Beams, Columns, and Slabs (Super Structure)

Before placing the concrete, the forms must be examined for correct alignment. They should be
adequately rigid to withstand the weight of concrete and construction loads without undue
deformation. Forms should be light enough to avoid any loss of mortar resulting in honeycombed
concrete. The insides of the forms should be cleaned and lubricated (oiled) before use to avoid
any sticking of concrete with the forms and making their stripping off difficult.

Concrete should not be dropped but placed in position to prevent segregation. It should be
dropped vertically from as small height as possible. It should be placed at one point in the
formwork and allowed to flow side ways to take care of honeycombing.

Laitance formation should be avoided. It can be checked by restricting thickness of layer of

concrete by 150-300 mm for R.C.C work. Laitance, however, if formed must be removed before
placing the next layer of concrete. Several such layers form a lift, provided they follow one
another quickly enough to avoid cold joints. The surface of the previous lift is kept rough and all
the laitance removed before placing the next lift.

The reinforcement should be checked for tightness and clean surface. The loose rust or scales if
any, are removed by wire brush. Paint, oil or grease if found should be removed. The minimum
cover for reinforcement should be checked before concreting.

 Mass Concreting
When the concrete is to be laid in mass as for raft foundation, dam, bridge, pier etc., concrete is
placed in layers of 350-450 mm thickness. Several such layers placed in quick succession form
a lift. Before placing the concrete in the next lift, the surface of the previous lift is cleaned
thoroughly with water jets and scrubbing by wire brush. In case of dams, sand blasting is done.

The laitance and loose materials are removed and cement slurry is applied. When the concrete is
subjected to lateral thrust, bond bars or bond stones are provided to form a key between different
layers.

 Concreting Highways and Runways

Concrete is laid in bays for highway, runway, or floor slabs. First the ground on which concrete
is to be laid is prepared and all the loose materials and grass etc., are removed. The earth is
wetted and compacted. The subgrades over which concrete is to be laid should be properly
compacted and damped to avoid any loss of moisture from concrete. Concrete is then laid in
alternate bays. This allows the concrete to undergo sufficient shrinkage and cracks do not
develop afterwards. Concrete is not placed in heap at one place and then dragged, instead it is
placed in uniform thickness.

 Concreting Underwater
Concrete may be placed underwater with the help of bottom dump buckets. The concrete is taken
through the water in water- tight bucket. On reaching the place of deposition the bottom of the
bucket is made to open and the concrete is dumped. In this process certain amount of cement is
washed away causing a reduction in strength of concrete. Another way of concreting underwater
is by filling cement bag with dry or semi-dry mix of cement and aggregates and lowering them to
the place of deposition. The drawback of this method is that the concrete will be full of voids
interspersed with participle gunny bags.

The best method of placing concrete underwater is by the use of termite pipe. The concrete is
poured into it through funnel. The bottom end of the pipe is closed with a thick ploythene sheet,
with the bottom end of the pipe at the place of deposition. The concrete (slump 150-200 mm) is
poured into funnel till the whole pipe is filled with concrete. The pipe is slightly lifted and given
a jerk, the polythene sheet cover falls and concrete discharged. It should be ensured that the end
of pipe remains inside the concrete so that water does not enter the pipe. The pipe is again filled
with concrete through funnel and the process repeated till the concrete level comes above the
water level. No compaction is required for underwater concrete as it gets compacted by the
hydrostatic pressure of water. Concrete can also be placed underwater with the help of pipes and
pumps.

5. Compacting

After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of concrete
production is its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within the moulds or
frameworks and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel. Considerable quantity of air is
entrapped in concrete during its production and there is possible partial segregation also. Both
of these adversely affect the quality of concrete. Compaction of the concrete is the process to get
rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation occurred and to form a uniform
dense mass. It has been found that 5 per cent voids in hardened concrete reduce the strength by
over 30 per cent and 10 per cent voids reduce the strength by over 50 per cent. Therefore, the
density and consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend upon the
degree of compaction. For maximum strength driest possible concrete should be compacted 100
per cent.
The voids increase the permeability of concrete. Loss of impermeability creates easy passage
of moisture, oxygen, chlorides, and other aggressive chemicals into the concrete. This causes
rusting of steel and spalling (disintegration) of concrete i.e., loss of durability. Easy entry of
sulphates from the environment causes expansive reaction with the tricalcium aluminate
(C3A) present in cement. This causes disintegration of concrete and loss of durability. Entry of
carbon dioxide causes carbonation of concrete i.e., loss of alkalinity of concrete or loss of the
protective power that concrete gives to the reinforcement or other steel embedded in it. Once
the carbonation depth exceeds the thickness of concrete cover to the embedded steel, steel
becomes vulnerable to the attack of moisture. This expedites rusting of steel as the protective
concrete cover remains no longer alkaline in nature.

Compaction is achieved by imparting external work over the concrete to overcome the internal
friction between the particles forming the concrete, between concrete and reinforcement and
between concrete and forms and by reducing the air voids to a minimum. The compaction of
concrete can be achieved by the following methods.
1. Hand Compaction
2. Compaction by Vibration
a. Needle Vibrator:
b. Formwork Vibrator
3. Compaction by Spinning
4. Compaction by Jolting
5. Compaction by Rolling

6. Curing

Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and water.
This chemical reaction requires moisture, favorable temperature and time referred to as the
curing period. Curing of freshly placed concrete is very important for optimum strength and
durability. The major part of the strength in the initial period is contributed by the clinker
compound C3S and partly by C2S, and is completed in about three weeks. The later strength
contributed by C2S is gradual and takes long time. As such sufficient water should be made
available to concrete to allow it to gain full strength. The process of keeping concrete damp
for this purpose is known as curing. The object is to prevent the loss of moisture from
concrete due to evaporation or any other reason, supply additional moisture or heat and moisture
to accelerate the gain of strength. Curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no case
for less than ten days.
Approximately 14 liters of water is required to hydrate each bag of cement. Soon after the
concrete is placed, the increase in strength is very rapid (3 to 7 days) and continues slowly
thereafter for an indefinite period. Concrete moist cured for 7 days is about 50 per cent stronger
than that which is exposed to dry air for the entire period. If the concrete is kept damp for one
month, the strength is about double than that of concrete exposed only to dry air.

 Methods of Curing
Concrete may be kept moist by a number of ways. The methods consist in either supplying
additional moisture to concrete during early hardening period by ponding, spraying, sprinkling,
etc. or by preventing loss of moisture from concrete by sealing the surface of concrete by
membrane formed by curing compounds. Following are some of the prevalent methods of
curing.
  Water Curing
 Steam Curing
 Curing by Infra-Red Radiation
 Electrical Curing
 Chemical Curing

7. Finishing
Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the
ultimate product is not that pleasant. In past couple of decades efforts have been made to develop
surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete surfaces and are as follows.

 Formwork Finishes
 Surface Treatments
 Applied Finishes

Mix Proportions and Grades of Concrete

 Nominal Concrete Mix Ratios
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes. Nominal mixes offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a
margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength. Nominal mix ratios for
concrete are 1:2:4 for M15, 1:1.5:3 for M20 etc.

 Standard Mixes or Ratio

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and
may result in under or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has
been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes. IS 456-2000 has
designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25, M30, M35
and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified 28
day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond
approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

 Designed Mix Ratio of Concrete (IS 10262: 2019)

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions
for the prescribed performance. For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or
standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by
slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not
exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the
ingredients. Following table provides details of different types of concrete mix ratios and their
strengths.
 Compressive Strength
Concrete
Mix Ratio
Grade
MPa (N/mm2) psi
(Nominal Mix)

Normal Grade of Concrete

M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi

M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi

M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi

M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi

M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi

Standard Grade of Concrete

M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi

M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi

M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi

M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi

M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi

High Strength Concrete Grades

M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi

 M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi

M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi

M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi

M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

Properties of Fresh Concrete:

Concrete remains in its fresh state from the time it is mixed until it sets. During this time the
concrete is handled, transported, placed and compacted. Properties of concrete in its fresh state
are very important because the influence the quality of the hardened concrete.
The fresh concrete has the following procedure.

1. Consistency
2. Workability
3. Settlement & Bleeding
4. Plastic shrinkage

5. Loss of consistency
1. Consistency
Consistency of a concrete mix is a measure of the stiffness or sloppiness or fluidity of the mix.
For effective handling, placing and compacting the concrete, consistency must be the same for
each batch. It is therefore necessary to measure consistency of concrete at regular
intervals. Slump test is commonly used to measure consistency of concrete.

2. Workability
The workability of a concrete mix is the relative ease with which concrete can be placed,
compacted and finished without separation or segregation of the individual materials.
Workability is not the same thing as consistency. Mixes with the same consistency can have
different workabilities, if they are made with different sizes of stone – the smaller the stone the
more workable the concrete.

It is not possible to measure workability but the slump test, together with an assessment of
properties like stone content, cohesiveness and plasticity, gives a useful indication.

3. Settlement and Bleeding

Cement and aggregate particles have densities about three times that of water. In fresh concrete
they consequently tend to settle and displace mixing water which migrates upward and may
collect on the top surface of the concrete. This upward movement of mixing water is known as
bleeding; water that separates from the rest of the concrete is called bleed water.
 4. Plastic Shrinkage
If water is removed from the compacted concrete before it sets, the volume of the concrete is
reduced by the amount of water removed. This volume reduction is called plastic shrinkage.
Water may be removed from the plastic concrete by evaporation or by being absorbed by dry
surfaces such as soil or old concrete or by the dry wooden form work.

5. Slump Loss
From the time of mixing, fresh concrete gradually loses consistency. This gives rise to the
problems only if the concrete becomes too stiff to handle, place and compact properly.
Slump loss in concrete is caused due to the following reasons.
 Hydration of cement (generating more heat)
 Loss of water by evaporation
 Absorption of water by dry aggregates
 Absorption of water by surfaces in contact with the concrete.

Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that, under a gradually applied load, a
given solid material can sustain without fracture. The formula for calculating compressive
strength is:
CS = F / A

Where in compressive strength (CS) is equal to the force (F) at the point of failure divided by the
cross sectional area. Compressive strength tests must be performed with equal opposing forces
on the test material. Test materials are normally in cylinders, cubes or spheres.
 Tensile strength
Tensile strength, maximum load that a material can support without fracture when being
stretched, divided by the original cross-sectional area of the material. Tensile strengths
have dimensions of force per unit area and in the English system of measurement are
commonly expressed in units of pounds per square inch, often abbreviated to psi. When
stresses less than the tensile strength are removed, a material returns either completely or
partially to its original shape and size. As the stress reaches the value of the tensile
strength, however, a material, if ductile, that has already begun to flow plastically rapidly
forms a constricted region called a neck, where it then fractures.

Flexural strength
The flexural strength of a material is defined as the maximum bending stress that can be
applied to that material before it yields. The most common way of obtaining the flexural
strength of a material is by employing a transverse bending test using a three-point flexural
test technique. Flexural strength is also known as bending strength, modulus of rupture or
transverse rupture strength.

Plain Cement Concrete

Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate
without steel.

Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete:

1. Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or similar stone,
free from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone ballast shall be 20 mm in size and
smaller.

2. Fine Aggregate

Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains and free
from dust, dirt and organic matter.

3. Cement

Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement concrete.

4 Water

Generally, potable water shall be used having a pH value not less than 6.
 Uses of Plain cement concrete

 As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings

 As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
 As to coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
 It is used in rigid pavement construction for transportation
 Storm/ Sewer at drains, small retaining walls.
 To make tennis courts, basketball courts etc


RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete)
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is a composite building material consisting of concrete
reinforced with steel.
Advantages of Reinforced Cement Concrete:
 Fresh concrete will be in the form of fluid and so it can be poured and casted into
any shape. It gives easiness to the engineer to decide the shape of structure based
on architectural aspects.
 RCC with proper cover will withstand to fire for about 3 – 4 hours. RCC will also
resist any type of weathering.
 After the completion of work low maintenance is needed for concrete structures
compared to the other (steel and timber) type of structures.
 Steel and Concrete are a commonly used construction material and so it is easily
available to prepare reinforced cement concrete.
 Reinforced Concrete members are good in rigidity due to their stiffness.

Disadvantages of RCC:

 RCC sections are heavier comparatively to the sections made with other
construction materials like Steel, wood, etc.
 It requires lots of formwork, centring and shuttering to be fixed
 RCC takes time to gain its full strength, because cement gains strength very slowly.
 RCC needs too much maintenance during its construction, like proper curing,
checking of cracks, prevention from direct sunlight, etc.
 RCC sections consume more space than other sections made with construction
materials like Steel.
 Uses of RCC
 Reinforced concrete is used for the construction of roof slabs, columns, beams and
footings in residential and commercial structures.
 Reinforced concrete is used for construction of bridges of small, medium and long
spans resulting in aesthetically superior and economical structures in comparison
with steel bridges
 Reinforced concrete is used in the construction of roads that is designed to carry
heavy traffics loads.
 Pipes and conduits have been constructed from reinforced concrete
 Electric poles are made from reinforced cement concrete.
 For construction of bunkers the reinforced concrete is used.

PSC (PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE)

Pre-stressed concrete is a structural material in which predetermined, engineering stresses
are introduced in to resist the stresses that occur when the material is subject to loading.
Following are the uses of PSC:
1) Construction of Bridges:
Pre-stressed concrete has applications in the construction of bridges. This type of bridge is
very strong and durable and is often used in the construction of long-span bridges.
2) Construction of Buildings:
Pre-stressed concrete is a construction material that is commonly used in the construction
of buildings. Pre-stressed concrete is often used for beams and columns, as well as for floor
and roof slabs in pre-stressed concrete buildings
3. Construction of Storage Tanks:
Pre-stressed concrete is commonly used in the construction of storage tanks. The advantage
of using pre-stressed concrete tanks is that they can be designed to resist the internal
pressure of the tank contents. This results in a lighter and thinner wall, which reduces the
overall weight of the tank
4. Railway sleepers:
 Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are used in rail tracks. The PSC sleepers are
extremely strong and durable and is less likely to be damaged by weathering or
other environmentalfactors.
5. Concrete Pavements:
Pre-stressed concrete is used in concrete pavements to improve their strength and
durability.

STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese
and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen. Steel is the world's most
important engineering and construction material. It is used in every aspect of our lives;
in cars and construction products, refrigerators and washing machines, cargo ships and
surgical scalpels. It can be recycled over and over again without loss of property.
Properties of steel
Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity, malleability and creep.
HARDNESS is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is worth
noting that, while it may mean the same as strength and toughness in colloquial
language, this is very different from strength and toughness in the context of metal
properties.
TOUGHNESS is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb energy without
fracturing or rupturing. It is also defined as a material’s resistance to fracture when
stressed. It is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in or Joules per sq. centimetre. It is
important to distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely deforms without
breaking, could be considered extremely tough, but not hard.
YEILD strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the
material(i.e. bending or warping).
TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material.
ELONGATION (or Ductility) is the ―Degree‖ to which the material can be
stretched or
compressed before it breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested
and is
between the tensile strength and yield strength (i.e. what percent does the material bend
beforebreaking).
FATIGUE strength is the highest stress that a material can withstand for a given
number ofcycles without breaking.
CORROSION is the irreversible deterioration and destruction of the steel material and
its vital properties due to the electrochemical or chemical reaction of its surface to
environmental factors such as acids, moisture and oxygen.
PLASTICITY is the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of
shape inresponse to applied forces.
MALLEABILITY describes the property of a metal's ability to be distorted below
compression. It is a physical property of metals by which they can be hammered,
shaped and rolled into a very thin sheet without rupturing.
CREEP is a type of metal deformation that occurs at stresses below the yield strength
of a metal, generally at elevated temperatures.
Uses of steel:

 Steel is environment-friendly & sustainable. It posses great durability.

 Compared to other materials, steel requires a low amount of energy to
producelightweight steel construction.
 Steel is the world’s most recycled material which can be recycled very easily. Its
unique
magnetic properties make it an easy material to recover from stream to be recycled.
 Steel can be designed into various forms. It gives better shape and edge than iron
whichis used to make weapons.
 Engineering steels are used for general engineering and manufacturing sectors.
 Steel is highly used in the automobile industry. Different types of steels are
used in a car body, doors, engine, suspension, and interior. The average 50% of a car
is made ofsteel.
 Steel reduces CO2 emissions.
 All types of energy sectors demand steel for infrastructure and resource
extraction.
 Stainless steels are used to produce offshore platforms and pipelines.
 Steels are used for packaging and protecting goods from water, air and light
exposure.
 Most of the household appliances like fridge, TV, oven, sinks, etc are made of
steel.
 Steels are used for producing industrial goodies like farm vehicles and machines.
 Stainless steel is used as a cutlery material.
 Because of its easily welding capability and attractive finishing, steel has
become aprominent feature in modern architecture.
 Stainless steel gives a hygienic environment. That’s why it is used for
surgical
implants.
 Steel has a wider range of temperature which is used to make large sheets.
 Renewable energy resources like solar, hydro and wind power use the
stainless steelcomponents.
 Mild steel is used for building construction. It is also a highly favoured building
framematerial.

Various tests done on STEEL REBAR are:

1. Tensile test
2. Compression test
3. Bending test
4. Brinell hardness test
5. Rockwell hardness test
6. Impact test
7. Torsion test

CAST IRON:
 Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content of more than 2%. Its
usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. Iron alloys with
lower carbon content are known as steel. Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for
malleable cast irons.
Use of cast iron:
 It is used in making pipes, to carry suitable fluids.
 It is used in making different machines.
 It is used in making automotive parts.
 It is used in making pots pans and utensils.
 It is used in making anchor for ships.

WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is a soft, ductile, fibrous variety that is produced from a semi-fused mass
of relatively pure iron globules partially surrounded by slag. It usually contains less than
0.1 percent carbon and 1 or 2 percent slag. It is superior for most purposes to cast iron,
which is overly hard and brittle owing to its high carbon content.
Use of wrought iron:
 It is used to make decor items like table base, candle holder, curtain rods etc.
 It is used in making pipes.
 It is used in making fences and gates.
 It is used in making nuts, bolts, rivets etc.
 It is used in making chains.
 It is used in making crane hooks.
 It is used in making plates.
 It is used in making handrails.
 It is used in making carpenter tools.
 It is used in general forging applications.
 It is used in making railway couplings.


CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS
The history of the construction Industry dates back to the early days of civilization,
when people would trade their strength and ability to build crude structures for
something else of value. From civilization to civilization, for over thousands of years
the quest for living in comfort had a fast growth. Structures made out of stone, clay,
timber, lime, masonry have now been transformed to modern concrete constructions.

The history of the construction industry over the past 200 years has been rapidly
changing, in large part due to the technological advances starting with the Industrial
Revolution and the explosive growth of the global population.

The history of the construction industry was changed with the creation of factories and
improvements in metal working in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. These
improvements meant there was less work that had to be done by hand, rapidly increasing
the rate at which buildings could be completed.

With the creation of new materials like steel and concrete, the history of the construction
industry altered again. Concrete is a material cheap enough to be used for virtually any
type of project and is strong and durable. Steel provides the strength needed for the
interior of large scale building projects, with concrete providing much of the outside
 support that would not have been done with the older materials.

With the growth of population, cities were created and the needs of the people were
changed. People wanted the buildings to grow taller, bridges across rivers, factories
etc. Not been an exception, engineers and scientists have always been forced to find the
solutions for peoples’ inherent need for better, faster and more convenient way of life.

In present day constructions, in addition to looking for stronger andmore durable

materials, the desire for esthetically attractive constructions is considered important.

In order to fulfill these overwhelming multifaceted requirements scientists are in search

for technologically more advanced [Link] is an invaluable material in present
day constructions which has a history for over centuries. From the present day
context,cement is an irreplaceable material due to its uniqueness in mouldability,
availability and low cost etc. In construction in particular the developments in concrete
related technology is considered vitally important.

The role played by the chemical industry towards the future of the construction industry
is tremendous. Construction chemicals consist of many allied fields that essentially
supports structurally, its durability, build ability, usage convenience and aesthetic
requirements.

Chemical Admixtures
Types of chemical Admixtures
 Plasticizers

 Superplasticizers

 Air Entrainers

 Waterproofing Admixtures

 Anti washout Admixtures for underwater concreting

 Shotcrete Admixtures

 Pumping Aids

 Light Weight Admixtures

 Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures

 Viscosity Modifying Admixtures

 Expansive Agents

 Stabilizers/ Activators

Plasticizers ( Water Reducers)

BS5075 Part 1, ASTM C494 Type A-E
A. Water reducing

B. Retarding
 C. Accelerating
D. Water Reducing Retarding
E. Water Reducing Accelerating

Super plasticizers (High Range water Reducers)

BS 5075 Part 3, ASTM C494 Type F-G

F. High Range Water Reducing

G. High Range Water Reducing Retarding

Air Entraining Agents

BS 5075 Part 2, ASTM C260

 Equal sized micro air bubbles are entrained in concrete

 Increase the workability of concrete

 Concrete is safeguarded against freezing and thawing

 Reduce the strength

 Micro bubbles 10-500 micrometre

 Use the air meter to observe the air entrainment

Waterproofing Admixtures
 Silicates,Oleates and Stearates

 Limitations for use (Grade of concrete matters)

 Difficult to check the effectiveness on site

 Block the pores and capillaries in the concrete

 Added to the concrete during batching

Anti washout admixtures (Underwater Concreting)

 Help keep the concrete High viscous

 Work with law w/c

 Always use a tremie to place concrete under water

 Must be used with superplasticizer to reduce w/c.

 Preferably the cement content should be min 400kg/m3

 Sand content 45% or higher

 Cohesiveness can be increased with Silica Fume

  Entrain air and decrease strength

SHOTCRETE ADMIXTURES
ASTM C 1141

 Accelerate the setting time (Flash setting)

 Reduce the re-bounce

 Make the concrete non saggy enabling to spray thick layers

 Mortar spraying and Concrete spraying

 Limitation on aggregate size

 Wet and dry methods

Waterproofing in Construction
Permanent waterproofing basically classified in to,

 Integral waterproofing
 Surface waterproofing

Integral Waterproofing
 Mineral Admixtures
 Hydrophobic agents
 Waterstops
 PU Injections
 Penetrating sealers

Surface waterproofing
 Pre-formed Membranes
 Coatings
 Sealants
 Waterstops
Pre-formed Membrane (Bitumen, HDPE, PVC,etc)
 Self adhesive membranes
 Torch-on membranes
 Non-adhesive membranes
 Loose laying membranes
Golden Rules

 Selection of Right Materials

 Correct Methodology
 Tailor made detailing
 Workmanship
