gayatriandia015@gmail.

com

1
Operating System
 INDEX

gayatriandia015@[Link]
[Link] TOPIC PAGE NO.
Operating System 1 – 58
1 Introduction to Operating System 3–5
2 MCQs 6–7
3 Process Management 8 – 12
4 MCQs 13 – 14
5 CPU Scheduling 15 – 20
6 MCQs 21 – 22
7 Process Synchronization 23 – 26
8 MCQs 27 – 28
9 Deadlock 29 – 32
10 MCQs 32 – 33
11 Inter-process Communication 34 – 35
12 MCQs 36
13 Memory Management 37 – 46
14 MCQs 46 – 47
15 File Systems 48 – 51
16 MCQs 52 – 53
17 Disk Management 54 – 57
18 MCQs 57 – 58

Important topics

2
 Introduction to Operating System

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is an operating system?
An Operating System is a system software that acts as an intermediary
between user applications and computer hardware.
Examples are Windows, Linux, macOS, Android etc.

2. Why do we need an operating system?

● Complex and Bulky Applications: Each application would need to
include its own code to interact directly with hardware, making
development difficult and programs larger than necessary.
● Uncontrolled Resource Usage: Without an OS, one application could monopolise CPU,
memory, or I/O devices, leading to inefficient and unfair resource utilisation.
● Lack of Memory Protection: Applications could access or overwrite each other’s
memory, causing data corruption and system crashes.

3. What are application software and system software?

Application software: It performs specific tasks for the user.
System software: System software controls the computer system and provides a platform
to run application software.

4. What are the goals of an operating system?

The following are the goals of an operating system:
● convenience (ease of use)
● efficiency (proper resource allocation)
● energy conservation
● minimal user interference

5. What are the main functions of an operating system?

i. Process Management: Handles creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.
ii. Resource Allocation:
Manages and distributes
hardware and software
resources fairly and
efficiently.
iii. Memory Management:
Manages allocation and
deallocation of main
memory (RAM) to processes.
iv. File System Management: Organises, stores, retrieves, and manages data on storage
devices.
v. Device Management: Controls and coordinates input/output devices through drivers.

3
 vi. Security and Protection: It protects data and system resources from unauthorised access.
vii. Process Scheduling: Determines which processes run when, optimising CPU usage.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
6. History and Evolution
The OS has evolved from simple batch processing to advanced multi-tasking systems
supporting multiple users and devices.
Example: Imagine how telephones evolved—from rotary phones to smartphones.
Similarly, the OS evolved:
i. Batch systems: No direct user interaction. Punch cards are submitted to the operator.
ii. Time-sharing: Multiple users could use the computer at the same time.
iii. GUI-based systems like Windows and macOS.
iv. Modern day: Advanced OS like Android, iOS, cloud-based, and embedded OS in smart-
watches and smart TVs.

7. Types of Operating System

i. Batch-processing: This type of OS
executes a batch of jobs without
manual intervention. Jobs with similar
needs are grouped and processed
together.
ii. Multiprogramming: This OS keeps multiple programs in memory (RAM) and executes
them by switching between them to utilise the CPU efficiently.
iii. Multitasking: This OS allows a single user to run multiple programs at the same time,
giving the illusion that they’re running simultaneously.
iv. Real-time: An RTOS responds to inputs or
events immediately with minimal delay,
often used in critical systems like satellites.
v. Distributed: This OS manages a group of
computers and presents them as a single
system to the user, coordinating processing
and data sharing across machines.

8. What is a Kernel?
A kernel is that part of the OS which interacts directly with the hardware and performs the
most crucial tasks. It is known as the heart of the OS.

9. User mode vs Kernel mode.

Kernel mode is a privileged mode where the OS has full access to all hardware and
system resources.
User mode is a restricted mode where applications run with limited access to system
resources to ensure safety and stability.

4
10. Different structures of an Operating system?
Different types of structure of the OS:

gayatriandia015@[Link]
i. Monolithic Kernel: The entire OS runs as one large program in kernel mode.
Example: UNIX or Linux
ii. Microkernel: Only essential services run in kernel mode; others run in user mode.
Example: Mach, MINIX
iii. Layered Architecture: OS is divided into layers, each built on top of the other.
Example: THE
iv. Modular Architecture: OS is built using independent modules that can be added or
removed easily. Example: Linux

11. What is a system call?

A system call is a mechanism using which a user program can
request a service from the kernel for which it does not have
the permission to perform.
User programs typically do not have permission to perform
operations like accessing I/O devices and communicating
with other programs.
System calls are the primary mechanism by which a user-level
program can intentionally request services from the kernel,
triggering a switch to kernel mode.
Example – fork, exec, getpid, getppid, wait, exit.

Types of System Calls: (Just remember types; their examples are not important).

i. Process Control: System calls that manage

process creation, execution, and termination.
● end, abort
● load, execute
● create process, terminate process
● get process attributes, set process attributes
● wait for time
● wait event, signal event
● allocate and free memory
ii. File Management: System calls that handle file operations like create, read, write, and delete.
● create file, delete file
● open, close
● read, write, reposition
● get file attributes, set file attributes
iii. Device Management: System calls that control device access and I/O operations.
● request device, release device
● read, write, reposition
● get device attributes, set device attributes
● logically attach or detach devices

5
iv. Information maintenance: System calls that retrieve or set system data and process
information.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
● get time or date, set time or date
● get system data, set system data
● get process, file, or device attributes
● set process, file, or device attributes
v. Communication Management: System calls that establish and manage communication
between processes, either on the same or different machines.
● create, delete communication connection
● send, receive messages
● transfer status information
● attach or detach remote devices

Type of System
Description Linux Example Windows
Call

Create, execute, and CreateProcess(),

Process Control fork(), execve(), exit()
terminate processes ExitProcess()

Open, read, write, and CreateFile(),

File Management open(), read(), write()
close files ReadFile()

Interact with and SetConsoleMode()

Device Management control hardware ioctl(), read(), write() ReadConsole()
devices WriteConsole()

Get/set system and

Information GetProcessId(),
process-related getpid(), uname()
Maintenance GetSystemInfo()
information

Enable inter-process pipe(), shmget(), CreatePipe(),

Communication
communication (IPC) socket() CreateNamedPipe()

MCQs:

1. What is the primary function of an 3. In which mode does the OS have full
Operating System? access to hardware?
A. Store user data A. User Mode
B. Act as an interface between user B. Safe Mode
and hardware C. Kernel Mode
C. Perform calculations D. BIOS Mode
D. Provide internet access
4. A batch processing OS is best
2. Which of the following is a type of suited for:
real-time system? A. Gaming
A. Windows 10 B. Real-time response
B. MS-DOS C. Processing payrolls
C. Airbag deployment system D. Video calling
D. Android

6
5. What is multiprogramming? 11. What does a microkernel do
A. Running programs in sequence differently than a monolithic kernel?
B. Running many programs with only A. Runs everything in one block

gayatriandia015@[Link]
one in memory B. Provides all services in kernel mode
C. Keeping multiple programs in C. Runs minimal services in kernel
memory to utilize CPU efficiently mode
D. Running only one program at a time D. Doesn’t use memory

6. A single process OS can? 12. In which mode do applications

A. Run multiple applications typically run?
B. Only run one program at a time A. Admin Mode
C. Schedule tasks concurrently B. Kernel Mode
D. Support real-time applications C. Safe Mode
D. User Mode
7. Multitasking allows a user to?
A. Switch between OSes 13. Which OS type is best for
B. Run multiple programs at once controlling industrial robots?
C. Use the OS without memory A. Batch OS
D. Access admin features B. Time-sharing OS
C. Real-Time OS
8. Which OS structure runs everything D. Multiprogramming OS
in a single large kernel?
A. Microkernel 14. An operating system that switches
B. Modular rapidly between tasks is?
C. Monolithic A. Batch processing
D. Layered B. Single user
C. Time-sharing
9. Distributed systems are designed D. Real-time
to?
A. Operate on a single device 15. APIs in OS are used to?
B. Manage databases A. Store data
C. Coordinate multiple machines as B. Develop UI
one system C. Access hardware directly
D. Replace cloud computing D. Allow programs to use OS services

10. What is a system call?

A. A call made to another computer
B. An API for games
C. A way for programs to request
services from the OS
D. A method to access kernel services
from user programs

ANSWER KEY
1. (B) 2. (C) 3. (C) 4. (C) 5. (C)
6. (B) 7. (B) 8. (C) 9. (C) 10. (C)
11. (C) 12. (D) 13. (C) 14. (C) 15. (D)

7
 Process Management

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is a program?
A program is a set of written instructions (code) that tells a computer what to do. It is
passive and stored on disk until it is executed.

2. What is a process?
A process is an instance of a program that is being executed. It includes the program code
and its current activity (like variables, program counter, registers). It is stored in main
memory.
Example: In a movie theater, the movie is like the program (static instructions) whereas
screening of the movie is the process (active execution of the movie). We can have multiple
theaters showing the same movie (multiple processes running the same program), but each
has its own audience, projector, and timing — just like a process has its own memory,
registers, and state.
A process comprises the following:
• text section containing the program code.
• current activity represented by the values of the program counter and other registers
• program stack
• data section containing global variables
• heap

3. Write the difference between a program and a process.

Aspect Program Process

Nature Passive (just code/instructions) Active (executing instance of a program)

Present in main memory (RAM) during

Stored In Stored on disk (e.g., .exe, .py file)
execution

A program is a set of instructions that Multiple processes can run the same
Multiplicity
can be executed multiple times. program

4. What is a Process control block (PCB)?

The PCB stores all information about a process: process ID,
state, program counter, CPU registers, memory limits, etc.

PCB is stored in protected memory areas inaccessible to user-

mode programs. This is because it holds important information
about the process.
Example: PCB is like a hospital file for a patient, it keeps track
of patient (process) status, medication (resources), and history.

8
5. Why do we need a Process control block?
As the OS supports multiprogramming, it needs to keep track of all active processes. For

gayatriandia015@[Link]
this, the PCB is essential. Each process has its own PCB.
Purpose of PCB:
● Track Process Execution: Helps the OS monitor and manage multiple processes
efficiently.
● Enable Context Switching: Stores the exact state of a process so it can be paused and
resumed correctly.
● Resource Management: Maintains details about memory, file handles, and I/O devices
used by the process.

6. What is a process table?

The Process Table is an array of PCBs, which logically contains a PCB for all of the current
processes in the system.

7. What is context switching?

Context switching is the process of saving the state of a currently running process and
restoring the state of another process that is ready to run. It enhances the system's ability
to perform multitasking effectively.
How it works:
• The CPU saves the context (registers, program counter, etc.) of the current process into
its PCB.
• The kernel then loads the context of the next scheduled process from its PCB into the
CPU, allowing it to resume execution.
Need for context switch:
• Multitasking Support
o Allows the CPU to switch between multiple processes or threads so they appear to
run simultaneously.
o Essential for running many applications at the same time (e.g., browser, music player,
and text editor).

• Fair CPU Sharing

o Ensures fairness by giving each process a chance to use the CPU.
o Prevents one process from monopolizing the CPU (important for time-sharing
systems).

• Better System Responsiveness

o Enables quick switching to high-priority or interactive tasks (like responding to user
input).
o Keeps the system responsive even when background processes are running.
• Handling Interrupts & I/O
o When a process is waiting for I/O, the OS can switch to another process to avoid CPU
idling.
o Keeps the system efficient by using CPU time productively.

9
 Nature of Operation:
• It is considered an overhead, as no useful work is done for the user during the switch.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Performance Impact:
• The speed of context switching depends on several factors, such as:
o The number of CPU registers to save/restore
o Memory speed
o Hardware support for context management

8. Describe the various process states in an OS?

A process can be in one of the following states at a time:
• New: The process is being created
and the OS is setting up resources like
memory, PID etc.

• Ready: The process is waiting to

be assigned to the CPU.

• Running: The process is currently

being executed on the CPU.

• Waiting: The process is waiting for some I/O operation to complete (like file read/write or
user input). It cannot proceed until the event finishes.

• Terminated (or Exit): The process has finished execution or has been killed due to an
error or user action. Its resources are now released.

• Suspended: The process is temporarily paused, often by the OS or a user. It can be

moved back to the ready or waiting state later.

9. What is a thread?
A thread is the smallest unit of execution within a process.
It is often called a "lightweight process" because it runs independently but shares many
things with its parent process.
Example: Imagine a team working on a group project (the process).
The entire team is like a process where each team member is a thread. They share the
same tools, whiteboard, and workspace (code, data, files). But each one has their own tasks,
and progress (stack, program counter, registers).
A thread has different states similar to processes — like Ready, Running, and Waiting, etc.

10. Why do we need Threads?

• Concurrency: Multiple tasks run at the same time (e.g., typing, auto-save, and
formatting in MS Word).
• Faster Performance: Threads use fewer resources and switch faster than full processes.
• No IPC Needed: Threads share the same memory, so they can communicate easily.
• Multitasking improves responsiveness in applications.

10
11. What do Threads share?

• Code section

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• Data section
• Open files, signals, and other OS resources

12. What is unique to each Thread?

• Thread ID: A unique identifier assigned to each thread by the OS.

• Program Counter: Keeps track of the instruction being executed.
• Register Set: Holds intermediate data and temporary values.
• Own Stack: Stores function calls, return addresses, local vars.

13. Write the difference between a thread and a process.

Aspect Process Thread

An independent unit of execution A lightweight unit of execution

Definition
with its own memory within a process

Shares address space with other

Memory Has its own address space
threads in the same process

Inter-process communication (IPC) is Communication is easier and

Communication
complex & slower faster (shared memory)

Context switch Context switch is slower Context switch is faster

Creation is slower and involves more

Creation Time Creation is faster, less overhead
OS overhead.

One process crash usually doesn’t One thread crash can affect the
Crash Impact
affect others entire process

Uses Thread Control Block

Control Block Uses Process Control Block (PCB)
(TCB)

14. Difference between User-Level Thread (ULT) and Kernel-Level Thread (KLT).

Aspect User-Level Thread (ULT) Kernel-Level Thread (KLT)

Managed By User-level thread library Operating System (Kernel)

Kernel is aware and manages

Kernel Awareness Kernel is unaware of user threads
threads

Slow (involves system calls to the

Context Switch Fast (no kernel involvement)
kernel)

If one thread blocks, it can cause the Only the blocking thread is
Blocking
entire process to block. paused

Scheduling Done by the user-level library Done by the kernel

Implementation Simple to implement More complex implementation

11
15. What is multithreading?
Multithreading is a technique that allows a single process to run multiple threads

gayatriandia015@[Link]
concurrently, improving performance and responsiveness. Multithreading is effective on
both single-core and multi-core CPUs. On a single-core CPU, it provides concurrency by
allowing the CPU to switch between threads, which is useful for keeping applications
responsive (e.g., performing I/O in one thread while another continues to run). On a multi-core
CPU, it enables true parallelism, where threads can execute simultaneously on different cores.

16. What are CPU bound and I\O bound processes?

CPU bound: A process that spends most of its time using the CPU for computations like
complex calculations.
It performs few I/O operations, takes long CPU bursts and keeps CPU busy.
I/O bound: A process that spends more time waiting for I/O operations (e.g., reading/writing
to disk or user input) than using the CPU.
It performs frequent I/O operations, takes short CPU bursts and keeps CPU idle often.

12
MCQs

1. What is the primary difference B. It is executing

gayatriandia015@[Link]
between a process and a program? C. It is waiting for I/O operation to
A. A process is stored on disk, while a complete
program runs in memory D. It is being terminated
B. A program is an active entity, while
7. Which of the following is true about
a process is a passive entity
threads?
C. A program is a passive entity, while
A. Threads have separate code and
a process is an active entity
data segments
D. Both are active entities
B. Each thread has its own PCB
2. Which of the following best C. Threads share code, data, and
describes a process in an Operating open files
System? D. Threads have less overhead than
A. A system call made by the OS processes
B. A static sequence of instructions
8. Which component is unique to each
C. An executing instance of a program
thread and not shared?
D. A hardware-level operation
A. Code section
3. Which of the following is not a part B. Data segment
of the Process Control Block (PCB)? C. Open files
A. CPU registers D. Stack
B. Program counter
9. Which of the following statements
C. Stack pointer
is true about threads vs processes?
D. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
A. Context switching between threads
4. When a context switch occurs, what is more expensive than between
happens to the PCB of the currently processes
running process? B. Threads do not support parallelism
A. It is deleted C. Threads are lighter and share the
B. It is updated and stored same memory space
C. It is moved to user space D. Processes are preferred over
D. It is flushed from memory threads for concurrent tasks
5. What is the correct sequence of
process states in its lifecycle? 10. What is one advantage of user-level
A. Ready → Running → Terminated threads over kernel-level threads?
→ Waiting A. Better CPU utilization
B. New → Ready → Running → B. Kernel handles scheduling
Waiting → Terminated C. Faster context switching
C. Running → New → Waiting → D. Direct access to hardware
Terminated
11. In kernel-level threads, the thread
D. Ready → Waiting → Running →
management is done by:
Terminated
A. Application developer
6. A process is in the waiting state B. Operating System
when: C. Compiler
A. It is waiting to be assigned to the D. Virtual machine
CPU

13
12. Which multithreading model maps 14. Context switching is:
many user threads to one kernel A. Creating a new process
thread? B. Saving and loading process state

gayatriandia015@[Link]
A. One-to-One during a switch
B. Many-to-Many C. Deleting an existing thread
C. Many-to-One D. Running two processes simultaneously
D. Two-Level Model
15. A CPU-bound process:
13. Which multithreading model allows A. Spends most of its time doing I/O
the OS to create a sufficient number operations
of kernel threads based on demand B. Requires minimal CPU and more
from user threads? I/O
A. Many-to-One C. Frequently yields the CPU
B. One-to-One D. Spends most of its time performing
C. Many-to-Many computations
D. Two-to-One

ANSWER KEY
1. (C) 2. (C) 3. (D) 4. (B) 5. (B)
6. (C) 7. (C) 8. (D) 9. (C) 10. (C)
11. (B) 12. (C) 13. (C) 14. (B) 15. (D)

14
 CPU Scheduling

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is CPU scheduling?
It is the process used by the OS to decide which process in the ready queue should be
executed next by the CPU.
Since there's usually one CPU and many processes, the OS uses a scheduler to decide
which process runs next.

2. What are the Goals of CPU scheduling?

• Maximize CPU utilization and throughput

• Minimize turnaround time, waiting time and response time
• Ensure fairness by preventing starvation and giving each process a chance.

3. Different types of CPU scheduling.

There are two types of CPU scheduling:
i. Non-Preemptive: Once a process is given the CPU, it runs to completion (or until it wants
to perform I/O operation), without being interrupted.
Example: Simple systems like batch processors.

Advantages:
• Simpler and more efficient
• Less context switching
Disadvantages:
• Poor responsiveness
• One long task can block others

ii. Preemptive: The CPU can be taken away from a currently running task if a higher-
priority or more appropriate task arrives.
Example: A short task arrives while a long task is running.

Advantages:
• Better response time
• Fair CPU distribution
Disadvantages:
• More overhead (context switches)
• Harder to implement

15
4. Describe the different types of queues used in CPU scheduling.
There are primarily three main types of queues.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
i. Job Queue (Secondary memory)
• Contains all processes submitted to the system.
• Some jobs may wait in the job queue before being admitted into RAM by the long-term
scheduler.
ii. Ready Queue (Main memory)
• Holds processes loaded in memory and ready to run.
• Waiting for CPU allocation.
iii. Waiting (Blocked) Queue
• Contains processes that are waiting for I/O (disk, keyboard, etc.).
• Will return to the ready queue once I/O is done.
iv. Swapped-Out Queue
• Processes that are temporarily moved to disk (due to memory limitations).
• Can be swapped back in when memory is available.

5. What are different types of Schedulers?

i. Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler)
• Selects processes from the
job queue and moves to the
main memory (ready queue).
• Controls the degree of
multiprogramming (number
of processes in memory).
• Balances CPU-bound vs I/O-
bound processes.
• Runs infrequently.
ii. Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler)
• Picks a process from the ready queue for CPU execution.
• Runs frequently (every few milliseconds).
iii. Medium-Term Scheduler
• Handles swapping: suspends and resumes processes.
• Improves memory and CPU utilization by managing load.

6. What is a dispatcher?
It is responsible for giving control of the CPU to the process selected by the short-term
scheduler. It plays a key role in process switching and multitasking.
Performs:
• Context switching (saving and restoring process states).
• Switching from kernel mode to user mode.
• Jumping to the starting instruction of the selected process.

16
7. Describe the important terminologies in CPU scheduling.

• Arrival time (AT): The time at which a process enters the ready queue.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• Burst time (BT): The time required by a process to complete its execution on the CPU.
• Completion time (CT): The time at which a process finishes its execution completely.
• Turnaround time (TAT): Total time taken from arrival to completion of a process.
o Turnaround time = Completion time - Arrival time
• Waiting time (WT): Total time a process spends waiting for CPU to be assigned.
o Waiting time = Turnaround time - Burst time
• Response time (RT): The time from when a process arrives to when it starts executing
for the first time.

• Throughput: The number of processes completed per unit of time by CPU. Higher
throughput is equivalent to better system performance.

• CPU utilization: Percentage of time the CPU is actively working.

• Dispatch latency: The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start
another.

• Gantt chart:
o It is a visual timeline that shows the order and duration in which processes are
executed by the CPU.
o It helps to understand the execution flow, calculate turnaround time, waiting time, and
response time.

8. What are the needs of CPU Scheduling Algorithms?

• Only one process can use the CPU at a time, so scheduling decides which process
runs next.
• Helps in efficient CPU utilization by reducing idle time.
• Aims to improve performance metrics like waiting time, turnaround time, and response time.
• Ensures fairness among processes and avoids starvation.
• Supports multitasking and handles different types of workloads.
• Allows priority handling where important tasks are given preference.

9. Describe different types of CPU scheduling algorithms with their advantages and
disadvantages.

17
i. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): Processes are scheduled in the order they arrive in
the ready queue.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Advantages:
• Simple, easy to implement and fair (in terms of arrival time).
Disadvantages:
• Convoy effect: Short processes get stuck behind long ones.
• High average waiting time.

ii. Shortest Job First (SJF): Schedules the process with the smallest burst time first.
Advantages:
• Optimal for minimizing average waiting time.
Disadvantages:
• Requires knowledge of burst times.
• Causes Starvation: Long processes may be delayed indefinitely.

iii. Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF): Pre-emptive version of SJF; runs the process
with the least remaining time.
Advantages:
• Best for minimum average turnaround time.
Disadvantages:
• Frequent context switching.
• Starvation of longer processes.

iv. Round Robin (RR): Each process gets a fixed time quantum in a cyclic order.
Advantages:
• Good for time-sharing systems and all processes get equal CPU time.
Disadvantages:
• High context switching overhead if time quantum is small.
• Poor performance if quantum is too small or too large.

v. Priority Scheduling: Each process is assigned a priority, and the CPU is given to the
highest-priority process.
Advantages:
• Handles important tasks first.
Disadvantages:
• Starvation of low-priority processes and may require aging to prevent starvation.

vi. Multilevel Queue Scheduling: Multiple queues for different process types (e.g.,
system, user), each with its own scheduling algorithm.

18
 Advantages:
• Separates different types of processes and is
customizable for system needs.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Disadvantages:
• Multilevel queue is rigid because processes
are not allowed to move between queues.
• Possible starvation of lower-priority queues.

vii. Multilevel Feedback Queue (MLFQ): Similar to multilevel queue, but processes can
move between queues based on behavior and aging.
Advantages:
• Highly flexible and reduces starvation through feedback and aging.
Disadvantages:
• Complex to implement and tune.
• Needs careful parameter design (quantum, levels).

10. Find out completion time, turnaround time, waiting time and response time for each
process for each of the algorithms.

Process Arrival Time Burst Time

P1 0 8

P2 1 4

P3 2 2

P4 3 1

First-come, first-serve
Gantt chart: P1(0-8) -> P2(8-12) -> P3(12-14) -> P4(14-15)

Process AT BT CT TAT WT RT

P1 0 8 8 8 0 0

P2 1 4 12 11 7 0

P3 2 2 14 12 10 0

P4 3 1 15 12 11 1

Avg CT: 12.25, Avg TAT: 10.75, Avg WT: 7, Avg RT: 8.5.

Shortest Job First

NOTE: non-preemptive SJF and works only on processes available at the time of
scheduling.
Gantt chart: P1(0-8) -> P4(8-9) -> P3(9-11) -> P2(11-15)

19
 Process AT BT CT TAT WT RT

gayatriandia015@[Link]
P1 0 8 8 8 0 0

P2 1 4 15 14 10 0

P3 2 2 11 9 7 0

P4 3 1 9 6 5 1

Avg CT: 10.75, Avg TAT: 9.25, Avg WT: 5.5, Avg RT: 7.

Shortest Remaining Time First

Gantt chart: P1(0-1) -> P2(1-2) -> P3(2-4) -> P4(4-5) -> P2(5-8) -> P1(8-15)

Process AT BT CT TAT WT RT

P1 0 8 15 15 7 0

P2 1 4 8 7 3 0

P3 2 2 4 2 0 0

P4 3 1 5 2 1 1

Avg CT: 8, Avg TAT: 6.5, Avg WT: 2.75, Avg RT: 1.75.

Round Robin
Gantt chart: P1(0-2) -> P2(2-4) -> P3(4-6) -> P4(6-7) -> P1(7-9) -> P2(9-11) -> P1(11-15)

Process AT BT CT TAT WT RT

P1 0 8 15 15 7 0

P2 1 4 11 10 6 1

P3 2 2 9 7 5 2

P4 3 1 7 4 3 3

Avg CT: 10.5, Avg TAT: 9.75, Avg WT: 5.25, Avg RT: 3.

20
MCQs
1. Which of the following determines 7. Which algorithm is preemptive

gayatriandia015@[Link]
the next process to be executed and selects the process with the
on the CPU? least remaining burst time?
A. Long-term scheduler A. FCFS
B. Short-term scheduler B. SJF
C. Dispatcher C. Shortest Remaining Time First
D. Medium-term scheduler (SRTF)
D. Round Robin
2. Which of the following is true
about CPU-bound processes? 8. Which scheduling algorithm may
A. Spend most of the time waiting cause starvation for low-priority
for I/O processes?
B. Always have higher priority A. FCFS
C. Perform most of their operations B. Round Robin
using the CPU C. Priority Scheduling
D. Require minimal CPU usage D. SJF

3. Which component gives control 9. The scheduler that decides which

of the CPU to the process job to admit into the system is
selected by the scheduler? called:
A. Long-term scheduler A. Long-term scheduler
B. Dispatcher B. Short-term scheduler
C. CPU controller C. Medium-term scheduler
D. Ready queue D. Dispatcher

4. Which scheduling algorithm may 10. Which queue stores processes

lead to the convoy effect? that are waiting to be assigned to
A. First-Come, First-Served the CPU?
B. Shortest Job First A. Job Queue
C. Round Robin B. Ready Queue
D. Priority Scheduling C. Waiting Queue
D. Device Queue
5. Which algorithm gives the
minimum average waiting time if 11. Processes waiting for I/O are
all burst times are known? placed in the:
A. FCFS A. Ready Queue
B. Shortest Job First B. Waiting Queue
C. Round Robin C. Swapped Queue
D. Priority Scheduling D. CPU Queue

6. In Round Robin, if the time 12. Which scheduler may suspend

quantum is too small, it leads to: and swap out processes to
A. Convoy effect manage memory?
B. Process starvation A. Long-term
C. High context switching overhead B. Medium-term
D. Better performance C. Short-term
D. I/O scheduler

21
13. In Multilevel Feedback Queue, 16. A Gantt chart is used to show:
processes can: A. Memory allocation
A. Only run in one fixed queue B. I/O operations

gayatriandia015@[Link]
B. Not change priority C. Process execution order over
C. Move between queues based on time
behavior D. Cache usage
D. Only run once
17. Which of the following is NOT a
14. Which scheduling algorithm is CPU scheduling criterion?
best for time-sharing systems? A. Turnaround time
A. FCFS B. CPU utilization
B. Round Robin C. Throughput
C. SJF D. Disk space
D. Priority Scheduling
18. Aging in scheduling is used to:
15. A major disadvantage of SJF is: A. Refresh old processes
A. High overhead B. Prevent starvation
B. Starvation of longer processes C. Increase time quantum
C. Low CPU utilization D. Remove finished jobs
D. Low throughput

ANSWER KEY
1. (B) 2. (C) 3. (B) 4. (A) 5. (B)
6. (C) 7. (C) 8. (C) 9. (A) 10. (B)
11. (B) 12. (B) 13. (C) 14. (B) 15. (B)
16. (C) 17. (D) 18. (B)

22
 Process Synchronization

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What are Cooperating process and independent processes?
Cooperating process: A process that shares data, resources, or communicates with one
or more other processes.
Example: Producer-consumer problem, where one process produces data and another
consumes it.
Independent process: A process that does not share data or resources with any other
process. No synchronization is needed.
Example: A music player app running while you type in a text editor. They do not interact, so
they’re independent.

2. What is process synchronization?

Synchronization is the coordination of processes so they don’t interfere with each other
when accessing shared resources (e.g., memory, variables, files). Without it, two or more
processes could change shared data simultaneously, leading to inconsistent or incorrect
results.

3. When does race condition occur?

Race condition occurs when multiple processes access and manipulate the same data
concurrently. In this condition, the final outcome depends on the order of execution, which
is unpredictable. There are software as well as hardware solutions to this problem.

4. What is a critical section?

It is a part of the code where shared resources are accessed. Only one process should
execute its critical section at a time to avoid race conditions.

5. What are different types of process synchronization?

We can divide it into two main types:
• Mutual Exclusion Synchronization: It ensures that only one process/thread can access
a critical section (shared resource) at a time.
o Techniques: Peterson's/Bakery, Mutex, Semaphores, Monitors, Spinlocks, Hardware
Instructions.
• Condition Synchronization: Waiting for an event or a certain condition in shared data
and waking up a waiting process when the condition becomes true.
o Techniques: Conditional variables, Semaphores.

23
6. What are the conditions to design a process synchronization algorithm?
The algorithm must satisfy the following three essential conditions:

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• Mutual Exclusion: Only one process should be allowed to enter its critical section at a
time. It prevents race conditions and ensures data consistency.
• Progress: The decision of which process enters the critical section should not depend
on processes that are not interested and the decision should eventually be made, not
postponed forever.
• Bounded Wait: After a process has made a request to enter its critical section, there must
be a limit on the number of times other processes are allowed to enter their critical
sections before this process gets its turn.
• No busy waiting (Optional): Processes should not waste CPU cycles continuously
checking if they can enter the critical section (unlike spinlocks).

7. What are the common solutions to the critical section problem?

i. Peterson’s Solution: A software-based solution for two-process synchronization. It
ensures mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded waiting. Peterson’s solution works
only for two processes and assumes atomic memory access.
How it works (for processes P0 and P1):
• Uses two variables:
o flag [2]: To indicate if a process wants to enter the critical section.
o turn: To decide whose turn it is.
• Each process sets its flag to true and gives the turn to the other.
• It waits if the other process also wants to enter and it’s their turn.

ii. Bakery Algorithm: Generalizes Peterson’s solution for multiple processes. It is inspired by
"take-a-number" systems in bakeries.
How it works:
• Each process takes a number.
• The process with the smallest number gets access to the critical section.
• Ensures fairness and mutual exclusion.

iii. Semaphores: Semaphores are synchronization tools (like counters) used to control access
to shared resources.
Types:
• Counting Semaphore: It can have any non-negative integer value. It is used when
multiple resources are available (e.g., 5 printers).
• Binary Semaphore: Only 0 or 1. Works like a lock: 0 means locked, 1 means available.

Operations:
• wait() (or P): Decrease value; if it’s negative, the process is blocked.
wait(S):
while S <= 0; // busy wait
S = S - 1;

24
 In practice, semaphores block the process instead of busy waiting — this code is for
concept only.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• signal() (or V): Increase value; wakes up a blocked process if any.
signal(S):
S = S + 1;

These are atomic operations, they cannot be interrupted.

8. What are hardware synchronization algorithms?

Hardware provides low-level mechanisms to enforce mutual exclusion directly using special
machine instructions. These are fast and do not rely on high-level constructs like
semaphores or monitors.

• Disable interrupts: A process disables all interrupts while in the critical section. It
prevents context switching, so no other process can interrupt and enter the critical
section.
o Simple and effective for a single-CPU system.
o Not suitable for multi-core systems.
o Disabling interrupts for too long affects system responsiveness.
• Test and Set: A special hardware instruction that tests a memory location and sets it (like
flipping a lock).
o If the lock is already taken, the process keeps checking (spinning) until it's free.
o It causes busy waiting, which leads to CPU time being wasted if lock is not acquired
quickly.
• Compare and Swap: This instruction compares the content of a memory location to a given
value and, if they match, swaps it with a new value.
o Very useful in lock-free programming.
o Can still result in busy-waiting if not combined with other mechanisms.
o These atomic operations may still cause livelock or priority inversion if not
combined with scheduling mechanisms.

9. What is a monitor?
A Monitor is a high-level synchronization construct used in OS and multithreaded
programming that combines mutual exclusion and condition synchronization using condition
variables.
It ensures that:
• Only one thread/process executes a monitor function at a time (mutual exclusion),
• Condition variables are used to make threads wait or signal each other when certain
conditions are met.

10. What is a condition variable?

A condition variable is used inside a monitor to let a thread or process:
• Wait (pause and release the monitor),
• And let other threads signal (notify) it when a certain condition is true.

25
11. What are common synchronization problems?
The following are the common synchronization problems along with their core issues and

gayatriandia015@[Link]
solutions using semaphores:
i. Producer-Consumer:
a. Problem:
• A producer puts data into a bounded buffer.
• A consumer takes data from it.
• Producer must wait if the buffer is full, and the consumer must wait if the buffer is
empty.
b. Semaphores Used:
• mutex = 1 → to protect critical section (buffer access).
• empty = N → counts empty slots (N = buffer size).
• full = 0 → counts filled slots.
c. Code snippet: [Link]
ii. Dining Philosophers:
a. Problem:
• 5 philosophers sit at a table and alternate between thinking and eating.
• A philosopher needs two forks (left and right) to eat and there are 5 forks present.
• If all pick up one fork, they get stuck = deadlock.
b. Semaphores Used:
• mutex → to modify states.
• semaphore[i] → one per philosopher to control access to forks.
• States: THINKING, HUNGRY, EATING.
c. Code snippet: [Link]
iii. Reader-writer:
a. Problem:
• Multiple readers can read at the same time.
• Only one writer can write, and no readers during writing.
• Two variants:
o Reader-priority (can starve writers)
o Writer-priority (avoids writer starvation)
b. Semaphores Used:
• mutex = 1 → to update read Count.
• write Lock = 1 → lock for writing.
• read Count = 0 → number of active readers.
c. Code snippet: [Link]

Problem Goal Semaphore Strategy

Producer-Consumer Balance buffer access mutex, empty, full

mutex, individual semaphore[i],

Dining Philosophers Avoid deadlock & starvation
state testing

mutex, write Lock, track read

Reader-Writer Allow multiple readers or 1 writer
Count

26
MCQs

1. What is the main purpose of 6. The Bakery Algorithm is mainly

gayatriandia015@[Link]
process synchronization in an designed to:
operating system? A. Eliminate starvation in CPU
A. To increase memory size scheduling
B. To avoid deadlocks B. Implement non-preemptive scheduling
C. To ensure correct sequence of C. Ensure fair access to the critical
execution when processes share section
resources D. Detect and recover from deadlock
D. To reduce context switch time
7. A binary semaphore can have how
2. Which of the following describes a many possible values?
race condition? A. Any non-negative integer
A. Two processes access different B. 0 and 1
resources simultaneously C. 1 and 2
B. A situation where concurrent D. 0 and -1
access to shared data leads to
unpredictable results depending on 8. What distinguishes a counting
timing. semaphore from a binary
C. A deadlock due to two processes semaphore?
waiting for each other A. Binary semaphore allows multiple
D. A starvation scenario where one processes; counting allows only
process never gets CPU time one
B. Counting semaphore uses only 0
3. In process synchronization, the
and 1
Critical Section is:
C. Counting semaphore allows
A. The part of the OS code that
multiple instances of a resource
handles system calls
D. Binary semaphore is implemented
B. The segment where shared
using mutex
resources are accessed
C. The waiting queue of the process
9. Which of the following hardware
D. The code segment responsible for
synchronization methods involves
I/O operations
disabling interrupts?
4. Which of the following is not a A. Compare and Swap
condition for a solution to the B. Test and Set
Critical Section Problem? C. Spinlock
A. Mutual Exclusion D. Disable Interrupts
B. Deadlock Prevention
C. Progress 10. The Test-and-Set instruction is
D. Bounded Waiting used to:
A. Enable interrupt handling
5. Peterson’s Solution works for how B. Avoid deadlocks
many processes? C. Set a flag to true and return its old
A. Only one value
B. Two D. Schedule CPU for I/O bound
C. Any number of processes processes
D. Exactly four

27
11. In the Producer-Consumer problem, 14. A monitor in operating systems is:
the shared buffer is used to: A. A physical device to watch
A. Store OS logs processes

gayatriandia015@[Link]
B. Communicate between kernel and B. A low-level hardware synchronization
hardware tool
C. Synchronize output to printer C. A high-level synchronization construct
D. Pass data between two processes that provides mutual exclusion and
using shared memory condition synchronization
D. Used only in single-threaded
12. What is the role of a mutex in environments
synchronization?
A. Used only for file protection 15. What is the purpose of a condition
B. Ensures exclusive access to variable inside a monitor?
shared resources A. To lock critical sections
C. Used to count waiting processes B. To keep track of CPU-bound
D. Terminates processes after processes
execution C. To block a process until a certain
condition is true
13. A spinlock is most suitable when: D. To switch the process to kernel
A. Processes wait for a very long time mode
B. Lock is expected to be held briefly
C. Context switch overhead is
negligible
D. Multithreading is not supported

ANSWER KEY
1. (C) 2. (B) 3. (B) 4. (B) 5. (B)
6. (C) 7. (B) 8. (C) 9. (D) 10. (C)
11. (D) 12. (B) 13. (B) 14. (C) 15. (C)

28
 Deadlock

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is a Deadlock?
A deadlock is a situation in an OS where a set of processes become permanently blocked
because each process is waiting for a resource that another process is holding.
Example: Imagine two processes: P1 holds Resource A and is waiting for Resource B, at
the same time P2 holds Resource B and is waiting for Resource A. Since neither can proceed
without the other releasing the resource, both are stuck → Deadlock.

2. What are necessary conditions for a deadlock to occur?

All four conditions must hold simultaneously for a deadlock to occur:
• Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-shareable mode.
• Hold and Wait: A process is holding at least one resource and waiting to acquire
additional resources.
• No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken from a process holding them.
• Circular Wait: A set of processes are waiting for resources held by others in a circular
chain.

3. What is a Resource Allocation Graph (RAG)?

It is a directed graph used to represent the state of resource allocation in a system. It shows:
• Processes requesting resources
• Resources assigned to processes

Components of RAG
i. Nodes (Vertices)
There are two types of nodes:
• Process nodes (P₁, P₂, ..., Pn):
Represent the processes in the
system.
• Resource nodes (R₁, R₂, ..., Rm):
Represent the resources in the
system.
○ Single Instance Type Resource: It
refers to a type of resource in the
system that has only one available
instance. In a system with single-
instance resources, the presence of
a cycle indicates a deadlock.
○ Multi-Resource Instance Type
Resource: It refers to a type of
resource that has multiple
instances available. In multiple-
instance resource systems, a cycle
may or may not indicate a deadlock.

29
 ii. Edges (Directed Arrows)
There are two types:
• Request Edge: P → R (from process to resource) which means process P is requesting

gayatriandia015@[Link]
resource R.
• Assignment Edge: R → P (from resource to process) which means resource R is
allocated to process P.
About Multi-Instance Resources:
• Resource nodes R have a label showing the number of available instances (e.g., R1(2)).

4. What are various ways to handle a deadlock?

Deadlock can be handled in four main ways in Operating Systems.
i. Deadlock Prevention: Ensure that at least one of the four necessary conditions for
deadlock never occurs.
• Eliminate Mutual Exclusion: Use sharable resources (not always practical).
• Eliminate Hold and Wait: Require processes to request all resources at once.
• Eliminate No Preemption: Allow forcibly taking a resource from a process.
• Eliminate Circular Wait: Impose a global order on resource allocation.
• Advantage: Deadlock is guaranteed not to occur.
• Disadvantage: Can lead to low resource utilization and reduced concurrency.

ii. Deadlock Avoidance: Dynamically decide whether resource allocation is safe.

• Use Banker’s Algorithm (for multiple instances of resources).
• Only grant resource requests if it leads to a safe state.
• Advantage: Deadlock is avoided without unnecessarily denying resources.
• Disadvantage: Requires knowledge of maximum resource demand, and involves
complex checks at runtime.

iii. Deadlock Detection and Recovery: Let deadlock occur, then detect and recover from it.
• Run a deadlock detection algorithm periodically.
o Use Resource Allocation Graph (RAG) for single instances.
o Use Banker’s algorithm for multiple instances.
• On detection:
o Terminate processes involved.
o Or preempt resources and roll back.
• Advantage: Higher resource utilization.
• Disadvantage: Deadlock may impact system performance until recovery.

iv. Ignore the Problem (Ostrich Algorithm): Do nothing and assume deadlock will not
happen.
• Used in systems like Windows or Linux when:
o Deadlocks are very rare.
o Overhead of prevention/detection is not justified.
• Advantage: Simple and no overhead.
• Disadvantage: Deadlocks can cause serious issues if they do happen.

30
5. What is Banker’s Algorithm?
It is a resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm used in systems where

gayatriandia015@[Link]
resources have multiple instances.
Goal: To ensure the system never enters an unsafe state (i.e., a state that could potentially
lead to deadlock).
Terminology & Data Structures:
• n processes: P0, P1, ..., Pn−1
• m resource types: R0, R1, ..., Rm−1
• Available[m]: Number of available instances of each resource type.
• Max[n][m]: Maximum demand of each process for each resource.
• Allocation[n][m]: Resources currently allocated to each process.
• Need[n][m]: Remaining resources each process may still request. Calculated as:
Need = Max – Allocation

Banker’s Algorithm steps:

i. Input initial values
a. Input values for Available, Max and Allocation.
b. Compute Need = Max - Allocation.
ii. Safety check (Is the system in a safe state?)
a. Initialize
• Work = Available
• Finish[i] = false for all i (i.e., no process is finished yet)
b. Find a process Pᵢ such that:
• Finish[i] == false
• Need[i] ≤ Work (element-wise comparison)
• If found, pretend to allocate its remaining resources:
o Work = Work + Allocation[i]
o Finish[i] = true
• Repeat step 2
c. If all processes can finish (Finish[i] == true for all i):
• The system is in a safe state.
d. If no such process is found:
• The system is in an unsafe state (allocation must be denied).
iii. Resource Request Algorithm (For runtime requests)
a. When a process Pi makes a request Request[i]:
• Check: Request[i] ≤ Need[i]. If not, error (process is asking for more than declared).
• Check: Request[i] ≤ Available. If not, the process must wait.
• Pretend Allocation:
o Available -= Request[i]
o Allocation[i] += Request[i]
o Need[i] -= Request[i]
• Run safety check (step 2)
o If the system is safe: allow allocation.
o If unsafe: roll back the changes and make the process wait.

31
Advantage:
• Ensures system safety.
• Prevents deadlock proactively.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Disadvantage:
• Requires advance knowledge of maximum needs.
• Can be computationally expensive for large systems.
• Not practical in all real-world OS implementations.
Code of banker’s algorithm: [Link]

MCQs
1. Which of the following best defines 5. Which approach involves
a deadlock in an operating system? periodically checking for deadlocks
A. A condition where a process uses by analyzing the system state?
excessive CPU time A. Deadlock Avoidance
B. A set of processes are waiting for B. Deadlock Detection
each other indefinitely for resources C. Deadlock Prevention
C. When all system resources are D. Deadlock Ignorance
used simultaneously
6. What data structure is used in
D. When a process completes execution
deadlock detection when each
without releasing resources
instance of a resource type is
2. Which of the following is not one of single?
the necessary conditions for A. Wait-for Graph
deadlock to occur? B. Linked List
A. Mutual Exclusion C. Resource Matrix
B. Preemption D. Allocation Table
C. Hold and Wait
7. Which statement correctly describes
D. Circular Wait
the Banker’s Algorithm?
3. In the Hold and Wait condition for A. It is used to detect circular wait
deadlock, a process: conditions
A. Must request all resources at once B. It allocates resources to maximize
B. Is preempted from all held resources CPU utilization
C. Is holding at least one resource and C. It ensures the system stays in a
waiting to acquire others safe state before granting a request
D. Cannot proceed unless all D. It kills a process immediately if it
resources are released causes a deadlock
4. Which of the following strategies 8. A system is said to be in a safe state
ensures deadlock prevention by if:
avoiding Hold and Wait? A. Deadlock is currently occurring
A. Request all resources at once B. No process is executing
before execution C. There exists a sequence to allocate
B. Allow circular wait to form resources such that all processes
C. Use a timer to preempt processes complete
D. Randomly assign resources to D. At least one process has no
processes allocated resource

32
9. In the context of deadlock recovery, 10. Which of the following is true about
what does resource preemption Resource Allocation Graphs (RAGs)?
involve? A. Cycles always indicate a deadlock

gayatriandia015@[Link]
A. Waiting for user input to release B. A cycle in a RAG is a necessary but
resources not sufficient condition for a
B. Forcing a process to release its deadlock if resources have multiple
held resources instances.
C. Avoiding the allocation of requested C. They help prevent race conditions
resources D. In RAGs, edges are only drawn
D. Killing all blocked processes from resources to processes

ANSWER KEY
1. (B) 2. (B) 3. (C) 4. (A) 5. (B)
6. (A) 7. (C) 8. (C) 9. (B) 10. (B)

33
 Inter-process Communication

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. When is Inter-process communication (IPC) used in OS?
When two or more processes running on the same or different computers need to
exchange data, they use IPC.

2. In which tasks inter-process communication is essential? (Not very important)

IPC is essential in many real-world computing tasks where multiple processes need to
coordinate, share data, or work in parallel to achieve a common goal.
Here are some key tasks where IPC is essential:
• Client-server communication: Clients request services, and servers respond.
o IPC is needed for: Transmitting data between client and server (requests, responses).
• Component-Based Applications: A large application is split into smaller, independent
modules or services.
o IPC is needed for: Communication between components.
• Parallel Processing: Divide a large task into smaller parts to be processed in parallel.
o IPC is needed for: Sharing intermediate results and coordinating processes.
• Data Synchronization: Processes need to work on shared data without conflict.
o IPC is needed for: Syncing access to shared resources.
• Transaction Systems: Multiple steps of a transaction are managed by different services.
o IPC is needed for: Coordinating and confirming steps.

3. Explain different approaches used for Inter-Process Communication.

• Message Passing*: Processes send and receive structured

messages to communicate. No memory is shared between
them. Example: Two people writing letters and sending them
through a mailbox.
Characteristics:
o Simple to implement.
o Works across machines (network).
o Safer (no shared memory, so no accidental overwrites).
Use cases: Client-server models, network communication,
distributed systems.

• Shared Memory*: Processes share a region of memory

where they can read and write data. Example: Two people
writing on the same whiteboard.
Characteristics:
o Very fast (no message overhead).
o Needs synchronization (to avoid data clashes).
Use cases: High-performance systems like real-time
video/audio streaming.

34
• Pipes: One-way communication, usually between related processes. Example: parent-
child process.
o FIFOs (Named Pipes): One-way but can be

gayatriandia015@[Link]
used between unrelated processes. It is
identified by a name (like a named mailbox).
Characteristics:
o Simple.
o Unidirectional (need two pipes for two-way).
o Intermediate speed.
Use Case: Shell command chaining: ls | grep txt.

• Sockets: Allows communication

between processes on different
machines or the same machine over
a network.
Example: Phone call, both people talk
and listen.
Types:
o TCP Sockets: Reliable connection.
o UDP Sockets: Faster, but no
delivery guarantee.
Characteristics:
o Full-duplex (two-way).
o Works over LAN, Internet.
Use cases: Web servers, chat apps, multiplayer games.

• Signals: A signal is a notification sent by the OS to a process to inform it that an event

occurred. Example: Tapping someone on the shoulder to get their attention.
Characteristics:
○ Asynchronous (can happen anytime).
○ Limited information sent.
○ Can be handled or ignored (except SIGKILL).
Use cases: Graceful shutdowns, event notification, alarm handling.

• Message Queues: A queue (buffer) where

processes can store and retrieve messages.
Example: A ticket counter queue, requests are
processed in order.
Characteristics:
○ FIFO order.
○ Can send priority messages.
○ Persistent across process restarts (System V).
Use cases: Task queues, email systems, print
spoolers.

35
MCQs

1. Which of the following is true about 4. What distinguishes a FIFO (named

gayatriandia015@[Link]
message passing in IPC? pipe) from a regular pipe?
A. It allows processes to share the A. FIFO can only be used within the
same memory space same process
B. It requires processes to be on the B. FIFO allows communication between
same machine unrelated processes
C. Communication occurs through C. FIFO is bidirectional
sending and receiving messages D. FIFO doesn’t require any file
D. It is faster than shared memory system support
communication in all cases
5. Signals are typically used for:
2. What is a key advantage of shared A. High-volume data transfer between
memory over message passing? processes
A. It offers better synchronization B. Low-level process control and
control simple notifications
B. It is more secure C. Creating shared memory
C. It avoids the need for synchronization D. Managing sockets and FIFOs
D. It allows direct access to common
data, leading to faster communication

3. Which IPC mechanism is

unidirectional and used for parent-
child communication?
A. Socket
B. FIFO
C. Pipe
D. Signal

ANSWER KEY
1. (C) 2. (D) 3. (C) 4. (B) 5. (B)

36
 Memory Management

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is Memory Hierarchy?
Our systems consist of various types of memory devices like register, cache memory, main
memory etc., each of these components has different performance rates and specific
usages.
Memory Hierarchy is an arrangement
and visualization of these various
memory devices considering their
performance, access time, and cost
per bit, which proves to be helpful while
designing a new system to balance its
overall performance-to-cost ratio.

2. What is memory management?

Memory management is how the OS organizes and controls system memory.
Example: It is like a librarian who manages everything in a library so that people can work
peacefully.

3. Use of Memory Management in OS

• It allocates memory to processes and retakes it when task is completed.

• It tracks space in memory (used/free).
• It ensures isolation (no process accesses others' memory).
• It supports multitasking and virtual memory.

4. What is a Memory Management Unit?

The Memory Management Unit (MMU) is a hardware component responsible for handling
memory-related operations in a computer system.
It translates logical (virtual) addresses generated by the CPU into physical addresses
used in RAM.
Functions of MMU:
• Address Translation: It converts logical address → physical address.
• Memory Protection: It ensures isolation.
• Access control: It controls read/write/execute permissions for memory blocks.
• Segmentation and Paging support: It supports segmented or paged memory systems.

37
5. Difference between Logical and Physical Address?

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Feature Logical Address Physical Address

Actual address in the main memory

Definition Address generated by the CPU
(RAM)

Visible To User/program Hardware only, not visible to the user

Generated By CPU during program execution Memory Management Unit (MMU)

Used In Logical address space Physical address space

Requires translation using page

Mapping Directly accessed by hardware
table/MMU

Example 0x000004 0x1F0004 (after translation)

6. What is swapping?
Swapping moves inactive processes to disk (swap space) to free up RAM and brings back
when needed.
• It increases multitasking.
• Although it is slower due to disk access.

7. How does the OS manage isolation and protection?

• Each process gets its own virtual(logical) address space.

• MMU translates virtual addresses to physical addresses and enforces memory
boundaries.
• Pages marked as read-only, write, or execute-only, prevents illegal memory operations.
• User Mode and Kernel Mode ensures user processes can’t harm the system.
• Define allowed memory range per process if access outside range causes an OS trap.
• Each process runs in its own protected space and no direct access to another process’s
data.
• Files and devices have permissions (read, write, execute) and OS checks user/process
rights before access.

8. What is fragmentation and its types?

Fragmentation is a condition where memory is wasted or cannot be used efficiently, even
though enough total memory is free.
It happens due to improper memory allocation and causes performance issues.

38
 Types of fragmentation:

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Type Description Example Solution

A process gets 8 KB
Wasted space inside Use variable
1. Internal memory, but uses only 6
allocated memory partitioning or
Fragmentation KB. The remaining 2 KB is
blocks. paging
wasted.

Wasted space between

100 MB free, but scattered
2. External allocated blocks, not Use compaction
in small chunks, can't fit a 20
Fragmentation enough for new or paging
MB process.
processes.

9. Explain different memory management techniques.

In contiguous memory
allocation, each process is
allocated one single
continuous block of memory.
All the bytes of the process are
stored together in adjacent
memory locations.
This was one of the earliest memory management techniques used in operating systems.
Types of Contiguous Memory Allocation
i. Fixed Partitioning
• Memory is divided into fixed-size partitions at system startup.
• Each partition holds exactly one process.
• If a process is smaller than the partition, unused space is wasted.
Advantages:
• Simple to implement.
• Supports multiprogramming.
Disadvantages:
• Internal fragmentation occurs if process size < partition size.
• Limits process size to partition size.

ii. Variable Partitioning

• Memory is divided dynamically based on the actual size of incoming processes.
• Partitions are created at runtime.
Advantages:
• Better memory utilization than fixed partitioning.
• No internal fragmentation.
Disadvantages:
• External fragmentation occurs.
• Requires memory compaction to combine scattered free spaces.

39
 In non-contiguous allocation, a process is not stored in a single continuous block of
memory. Instead, it is divided and placed in different locations in memory.
This helps in efficient memory usage and eliminates external fragmentation.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Types of Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation
i. Paging
• Memory is divided into fixed-size frames.
• Process is divided into fixed-size pages (same size as frames).
• A page table maintains the mapping of each page to a frame.
Advantages:
• Eliminates fragmentation.
• Simple implementation.
Disadvantages:
• Requires extra memory for page tables.

ii. Multilevel Paging

• When page tables are large, they are split into multiple levels.
• A first-level table points to second-level page tables, and so on.
Advantages:
• Reduces memory needed for storing page tables.
• Supports large address spaces efficiently.
Disadvantages:
• Increases memory access time due to multiple lookups.
• More complex to implement.

40
iii. Inverted Paging (Inverted Page Table)
• Instead of one page table per process, there is one global page table for the entire
system.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• Each entry corresponds to a physical frame and stores the process ID and page
number.
Advantages:
• It saves memory space because only one global page table is used for the entire system.
• Scales with physical memory size.
Disadvantages:
• Slower address translation (requires searching or hashing).
• More complex management.

iv. Segmentation
• A process is divided into
logical segments like
code, stack, heap, data,
etc.
• Each segment has a base
address and limit.
• Segment table maps each
segment to a physical
address.
Advantages:
• Logical division improves
modularity.
• Easy to share or protect
segments individually.
Disadvantages:
• External fragmentation may occur.
• Needs complex management.

41
 v. Segmented Paging
• Combines segmentation and paging.
• Process is divided into segments, and each segment is further divided into pages.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• Uses a segment table and page table per segment.
Advantages:
• Logical view from segmentation with efficient memory use from paging.
• Reduces both external and internal fragmentation.
Disadvantages:
• Complex address translation (needs both segment and page lookups).
• Higher memory management overhead.

10. Explain various allocation methods used in Contiguous memory allocation.

There are 4 allocation methods used in Contiguous memory allocation
i. First fit: It allocates the first available free block that is large enough for the process.
Example:
Free blocks: 10KB, 20KB, 15KB.
Request: 12KB → Allocated to 20KB block (first that fits).
ii. Next fit: Similar to first fit, but it starts searching from where it last left off, not from the
beginning.
iii. Best Fit: It allocates the smallest free block that is big enough for the process.
iv. Worst Fit: It allocates the largest free block, assuming large remaining space will be
useful later.

11. What is Virtual Memory?

Virtual Memory is a memory management technique that makes the computer think it has
more RAM than it actually does by using a part of the hard disk as extra memory.
Key points:
• Allows you to run large programs even with limited physical RAM.
• OS moves data between RAM and disk as needed.
• Helps in efficient memory usage and process isolation.
Advantages:
• Enables larger programs to run.
• Isolation between processes.
• Efficient memory utilization.
Disadvantages:
• Accessing data from disk is slower than RAM.
• Can lead to thrashing if overused.

42
12. What is demand paging?
In demand paging, pages are loaded into memory only when they are needed, not in advance.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
How it works:
• Process starts with no pages in memory.
• When a page is needed → Page Fault occurs.
• OS loads the page from disk to RAM.
Advantages:
• Saves memory.
• Faster program startup.
Disadvantages:
• Causes initial page faults.
• Page faults are costly if frequent.

13. Explain different page replacement algorithms.

When memory is full and a new page is
needed, one page must be replaced.
These algorithms decide which page to
remove.
i. FIFO (First-In First-Out): Remove
the oldest page (the one loaded first).
Example: Page Reference: 1 2 3 (3 frames), Next frame is 4 → Page fault for 4 → remove
1 (first in).
Characteristics:
• Simple to implement (use a queue).
• May remove frequently used pages.
• Belady's Anomaly (more frames, more page faults) can be caused by the FIFO page
replacement algorithm. It does not affect LRU or Optimal algorithms.

ii. LIFO (Last-In First-Out): Remove the most recently loaded page.
Example: Page Reference: 1 2 3 → Next frame is 4 → remove 3 (last loaded).
Characteristics
• Simple stack implementation.
• Not practical or efficient in real-world use.
• May remove the most needed page.

iii. LRU (Least Recently Used): Remove the page that hasn’t been used for the longest
time.
Example: Reference: 1 → 2 → 1 → 3. Since 1 was recently used, 2 is least recently used
and is removed.
Characteristics:
• Good approximation of real-world behavior.
• Needs to track usage history (can be complex).
43
 iv. Optimal: Remove the page that won’t be used for the longest time in future.
Example: Reference: 1 2 3 4 1 2, on needing 5, if 3 will not be used for the longest time in
the future, then it is selected for replacement.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Characteristics:
• Best possible performance.
• Not implementable (requires future knowledge).
• Used for benchmarking.

v. Random Page Replacement: Remove a randomly selected page from memory.

Characteristics:
• Easy and fast to implement.
• Avoids pattern-based failures.
• Can evict frequently used pages.
• Performance is unpredictable.

Algorithm Removes which Page Complexity Practical Use Accuracy

FIFO Oldest loaded Easy Moderate Low

LIFO Most recently loaded Easy Rare Poor

LRU Least recently used Moderate Common Good

Optimal Not used for longest in future Hard No (theoretical) Best

Random Random page Easy Rare Varies

14. What is Thrashing?

Thrashing occurs when the system spends more time swapping pages in and out of
memory than executing actual processes.
Causes:
• Too many processes with not enough
RAM.
• Frequent page faults.
• Insufficient working set (set of pages
a process needs regularly).
Effects:
• Drastic drop in performance.
• High CPU utilization but low actual work.
Solutions:
• Reduce the degree of multiprogramming.
• Use a working set model to allocate enough pages.
• Apply better page replacement algorithms.

44
 Extra topics
15. What is a Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)?

gayatriandia015@[Link]
The TLB is a small, fast cache used by the MMU to store recent translations of logical
addresses to physical addresses.
How it works:
• The CPU generates a logical address.
• MMU checks the TLB for the page number:
o TLB Hit → Gets physical address quickly.
o TLB Miss → Looks up the page table in memory, updates TLB.
• Translated physical address is sent to RAM.

16. Why is TLB needed?

• In paging systems, each memory access requires a page table lookup.

• Accessing the page table in memory is slow.
• TLB stores recent address mappings to speed up address translation.

17. What is Overlay in OS?

Overlay was historically used to run programs larger than the available memory, before virtual
memory became common.
It allows a program to be divided into mutually exclusive modules, where only one module
(or overlay) is loaded into memory at a time.
Key Concept:
• Instead of loading the entire program into memory,
• Only the needed part (overlay) is loaded and executed.
• When another part is needed, it replaces the current one in memory.
Disadvantages:
• Programmer must manually design overlays.
• Can be complex to manage.
• Rarely used today due to virtual memory.

18. What is Caching?

Caching is the process of storing frequently accessed data in a faster memory (cache) so
that future requests for that data can be served faster.
Example:
• CPU cache stores frequently used instructions or data from RAM.
• Web browser cache stores visited web pages locally to load them faster next time.

19. What is Compaction in OS?

Compaction is the process of shifting all the allocated memory blocks together to one end
of memory and combining all the free spaces into one large block to reduce external
fragmentation in contiguous memory allocation systems.

45
Key Points:
• Done by the Operating System.
• Compaction can be time-consuming because it involves moving processes and updating

gayatriandia015@[Link]
memory references.
• Usually done in systems that support relocation.
Characteristics:
• Eliminates external fragmentation.
• Allows loading of larger processes.
• Overhead of data movement (CPU time, performance hit).
• Not suitable for real-time systems.

MCQs
1. What is the main purpose of A. Between allocated and free blocks
memory management in an B. Outside memory modules
operating system? C. Within allocated memory blocks
A. To compress memory usage D. During disk I/O
B. To divide the CPU for multitasking
6. Which allocation strategy scans
C. To allocate and protect memory for
from the location of the last
processes
allocation?
D. To monitor hardware devices
A. First Fit
2. The Memory Management Unit B. Best Fit
(MMU) is responsible for: C. Worst Fit
A. Handling cache replacement D. Next Fit
B. Translating logical addresses to
7. In paging, a logical address is
physical addresses
divided into:
C. Managing disk fragmentation
A. Page number and segment number
D. Swapping files
B. Frame number and offset
3. Which address is generated by the C. Page number and page offset
CPU during a program’s execution? D. Segment and offset
A. Physical address
8 The page table stores:
B. Logical address
A. Physical memory addresses of
C. Virtual address
processes
D. Swap address
B. Mapping of logical pages to physical
4. Swapping is a technique where: frames
A. Pages are locked in memory C. Process execution time
permanently D. File descriptors
B. The CPU is exchanged between
9. What is the main function of the
processes
Translation Lookaside Buffer
C. A process is temporarily moved out
(TLB)?
of memory
A. Handling disk swapping
D. Memory is copied to the hard drive
B. Reducing context switch time
5. In internal fragmentation, memory C. Caching recent page table entries
is wasted: D. Storing memory allocation algorithms

46
10. Which paging scheme uses a page 16. Which page replacement algorithm
table where each entry points to uses a queue and replaces the
another page table? oldest page first?

gayatriandia015@[Link]
A. Segmentation A. LRU
B. Inverted Paging B. Optimal
C. Multilevel Paging C. FIFO
D. Direct Mapping D. Random
11. In segmentation, a logical address 17. Which page replacement algorithm
consists of: uses future knowledge to minimize
A. Segment number and offset faults?
B. Page number and frame A. FIFO
C. Block and byte B. Optimal
D. Page and segment C. LRU
D. Random
12. Which of the following is true about
segmented paging? 18. Thrashing occurs when:
A. Pages are divided into segments A. CPU overheats
B. Segments are divided into pages B. Cache is full
C. It uses only virtual memory C. The system spends most time
D. No page table is used swapping pages
D. The TLB is invalid
13. Which memory allocation method
often causes the least internal 19. What is the role of caching in
fragmentation? memory management?
A. Fixed partitioning A. It stores future predictions
B. Best Fit B. It replaces the page table
C. Worst Fit C. It provides fast access to frequently
D. First Fit used data
D. It handles segmentation
14. What does virtual memory enable a
process to do? 20. What is the purpose of overlay in
A. Run without CPU access memory management?
B. Access disk files directly A. To implement page tables
C. Use more memory than physically B. To allow execution of large programs
available in small memory
D. Disable swapping C. To avoid fragmentation
D. To enhance CPU speed
15. In demand paging, pages are:
A. Pre-loaded into memory
B. Loaded only when needed
C. Locked into cache
D. Copied to a new address

ANSWER KEY
1. (C) 2. (B) 3. (B) 4. (C) 5. (C)
6. (D) 7. (C) 8. (B) 9. (C) 10. (C)
11. (A) 12. (B) 13. (B) 14. (C) 15. (B)
16. (C) 17. (B) 18. (C) 19. (C) 20. (B)

47
 File Systems

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is a File System in OS?
A File System organizes and manages how data is stored and retrieved on storage devices.
• Main functions: File creation/deletion, directory management, storage allocation,
access control.
• Common examples: NTFS (Windows), ext4 (Linux), FAT32, HFS+.

2. Advantages of using a File System in OS.

• Data Organization: Structures data into files and directories.
• Access Control: Enforces permissions and user restrictions.
• Data Sharing: Allows sharing of files among users and applications.
• Data Recovery: Supports backup and restore operations.
• Efficient Storage: Allocates and reclaims space efficiently.

3. Disadvantages of using a File System in OS

• Overhead: Requires additional space for metadata.
• Fragmentation: Can cause slow access due to scattered storage.
• Complexity: Advanced file systems are harder to manage.
• Performance Bottlenecks: Poor allocation or indexing may slow operations.

4. Properties of a File System.

• Persistence: Data is stored permanently.
• Security: Provides controlled access.
• Scalability: Handles large volumes of data.
• Efficiency: Optimizes performance for storage and retrieval.
• Reliability: Prevents data corruption and enables recovery.

5. What are File Attributes in OS?

File attributes are metadata that describes the file. Common attributes include:
• Name: Human-readable identifier.
• Type: Format or usage of file (e.g., .txt, .exe).
• Size: File size in bytes.
• Location: Physical location on the disk.
• Timestamps: Created, modified, and accessed times.
• Permissions: Read, write, execute rights.
• Owner: User who owns the file.

6. What are commonly used terms in File Systems?

• File Descriptor: Identifier used by the OS to access files.
• Metadata: Data about data (e.g., size, timestamps).
• Mounting: Making a file system accessible at a directory.
• Pathname: Location of a file in the directory structure.
• Inode (in UNIX): Stores file attributes and disk block pointers.

48
7. Explain different File Access Methods.
i. Sequential Access

gayatriandia015@[Link]
• Data accessed in order (e.g., audio files).
• Simple, fast for large reads.
• Slow for random access.

ii. Direct Access

• Jump to any block directly (e.g., database).
• Fast, flexible.
• More complex than sequential.

iii. Indexed Access

• Uses an index block or table to locate data blocks
of a file.
• Efficient for random access.
• Overhead of maintaining indexes.

8. Directory Structures
i. Single-Level Directory
• One directory for all files.
• Simple.
• Name conflicts, not scalable.
ii. Two-Level Directory
• Separate directory for each user.
• No name conflict between users.
• No sharing between users.
iii. Tree Structure
• Hierarchical, allows subdirectories.
• Organized, scalable.
• Complex traversal.
iv. Acyclic Graph (DAG)
• Allows shared files/directories (links).
• Efficient sharing.
• Deletion is complex because multiple
directory entries may reference the
same file.

9. File Types in an OS
i. Text Files: Human-readable (.txt, .csv).
ii. Binary Files: Machine-readable (.exe, .jpg).
iii. Directories: Containers for files.
iv. Special Files: Devices or system files (e.g., /dev/null in Linux).

49
10. Explain different file allocation methods in the OS.
There are three main file allocation methods:

gayatriandia015@[Link]
i. Contiguous Allocation: Each file occupies a set of contiguous (adjacent) blocks on the
disk.
Example: If a file needs 5 blocks, it may be stored in blocks 10–14.
Characteristics:
• Fast access: both sequential and direct access are fast.
• Simple to implement.
• External fragmentation: free space is scattered, making allocation difficult.
• Difficult to grow files: may require moving the entire file if more space is needed.
ii. Linked Allocation: Each file is a linked list of blocks; each block contains a pointer to
the next block.
Example: File → Block 7 → Block 12 → Block 3 → null.
Characteristics:
• No external fragmentation.
• Easy to grow files.
• Slow direct access: must traverse from the beginning to reach a specific block.
• Space overhead: each block needs a pointer.
• Reliability issue: if one pointer is corrupted, the file may become inaccessible.
iii. Indexed Allocation: Each file has a
separate index block that contains all
the addresses of its data blocks.
Example: Index block → [5, 9, 13, 18]
Characteristics:
• Random (direct) access supported.
• No external fragmentation.
• Easy to grow files dynamically.
• Additional space required for index
blocks.
• For large files, it may need multi-
level indexing, adding complexity.

Feature Contiguous Allocation Linked Allocation Indexed Allocation

Access Type Fast (both) Slow (direct) Fast (direct)

Fragmentation External None None

File Growth Difficult Easy Easy

Space Overhead None Pointer per block Index block needed

Complexity Simple Moderate Moderate/High

50
11. How is Free Space Management done in OS?

• Bitmaps:

gayatriandia015@[Link]
o A bitmap (or bit vector) is a series of bits where each bit corresponds to a disk block.
o Typically, a '1' indicates that the block is allocated, and a '0' indicates it is free.
• Free List:
o Linked list of free blocks.
o Easy allocation.
• Grouping:
○ Store addresses of free blocks in groups.
• Counting:
o Store starting address + count of free blocks.

12. File System Mounting. (Less Imp)

It is a process of making a file system accessible to the OS.
• Mount Point: Directory where new FS is attached.
• Steps:
i. User requests mount.
ii. OS verifies the file system type.
iii. Updates mount table.

Example: Mounting USB drive under /media/usb.

Extra topics
13. Unix File System (UFS)

• A foundational file system for many UNIX-based operating systems. Its principles have
influenced modern file systems, including those used in Linux.
• Structure:
i. Boot Block – Contains bootloader.
ii. Superblock – Contains metadata about the file system.
iii. Inode Table – Stores metadata of individual files (permissions, size, etc).
iv. Data Blocks – Actual file contents.

Features:
• Hierarchical (tree-structured) directories.
• Uses inodes to manage file metadata.
• Supports access control using permissions.

51
MCQs
1. What is the primary purpose of a file 7. Indexed access is most efficient
system in an operating system? when:

gayatriandia015@[Link]
A. To compress data for storage A. Accessing records randomly
B. To allocate CPU time B. Appending data continuously
C. To manage how data is stored and C. Using fixed-length records
retrieved D. Accessing large directories
D. To enhance security
8. In the single-level directory structure:
2. Which of the following is a major A. Each user has their own directory
advantage of using a file system? B. Directories form a tree
A. Unlimited memory allocation C. All files are placed in one directory
B. Direct hardware access D. Files can be nested
C. Organized data storage and access
9. Which directory structure allows
D. Reduced execution time
efficient searching and shared
3. A key disadvantage of file systems subdirectories?
is: A. Single-level
A. Easy multi-user access B. Two-level
B. File corruption risks C. Tree
C. Fixed file size D. DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph)
D. Automatic sorting of files
10. A special file in a file system refers
4. The access time, modification time, to:
and permissions of a file are all A. A password-protected file
examples of: B. A file used for backups
A. File structure C. Device files that represent hardware
B. File attributes D. Encrypted text files
C. File types
11. In contiguous allocation, a file:
D. File extensions
A. Is stored in separate disk sectors
5. In sequential access file method: B. Can be stored in any available
A. Records can be accessed in any block
order C. Occupies a sequence of adjacent
B. Each record has a unique index blocks
C. Records are accessed one by one, D. Is allocated using a hash table
in order
12. What is a major problem with linked
D. Records can be accessed using
allocation?
offset.
A. It wastes memory
6. Which access method allows direct B. It requires large tables
jump to any block of a file? C. Random access is inefficient/slow
A. Indexed D. Files cannot be modified
B. Sequential
13. In indexed allocation, each file has:
C. Tree-based
A. A pointer to the first block
D. Paged
B. A linked list of blocks
C. An index block containing pointers
to all data blocks
D. A tree of block numbers

52
14. Which of the following is not a free 15. In Unix file systems, the mount
space management technique? operation is used to:
A. Bit vector A. Compress files

gayatriandia015@[Link]
B. Grouping B. Rename a file
C. Paging C. Make a file system accessible under
D. Counting a directory
D. Format the disk

ANSWER KEY
1. (C) 2. (C) 3. (B) 4. (B) 5. (C)
6. (A) 7. (A) 8. (C) 9. (D) 10. (C)
11. (C) 12. (C) 13. (C) 14. (C) 15. (C)

53
 Disk Management

gayatriandia015@[Link]
1. What is Disk Management in OS?
Disk Management is a core function of the OS responsible for controlling the use of disk storage.
• Manages space allocation, formatting, partitioning, and file systems.
• Ensures efficient read/write operations and prevents data loss or corruption.

2. Structure of a Disk.
i. Platters
• Circular disks made of metal or glass.
• Coated with magnetic material for
storing data.
• Each platter has two magnetic
surfaces (top and bottom) for
storing data.
ii. Spindle
• Central axis that holds and spins all
the platters.
• All platters spin together at a
constant speed (e.g., 5400 or
7200 RPM).
iii. Read/Write Heads
• Tiny magnetic heads that read or write data on platter surfaces.
• Each platter surface has its own head.
• Heads are attached to an actuator arm.
iv. Actuator Arm
• Moves the read/write heads across the disk surface.
• All heads move in unison (they are mechanically linked).
v. Tracks
• Concentric circles on each platter surface.
• Data is stored along these circles.
vi. Sectors
• Each track is divided into smaller sections called sectors.
• Smallest unit of storage (usually 512 bytes or 4 KB).

vii. Cylinders
• A set of tracks vertically aligned across all platters (same radius).
• Accessing data on the same cylinder is faster (no head movement needed).
viii. Disk Blocks
• Group of sectors managed by the file system.
• Used for reading/writing in logical units.

54
 ix. Cache (Buffer)
• Small high-speed memory in the disk controller.
• Temporarily holds frequently accessed data to improve performance.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
3. What Does Disk Management Do?

• Partitioning: Divides a physical disk into logical sections.

• Formatting: Prepares the partition to store files using a file system.
• File System Management: Tracks files and directories, their sizes, and locations.
• Space Allocation: Allocates/free blocks for files and processes.
• Disk Scheduling: Optimizes the order of read/write operations.
• Defragmentation: Rearranges data for faster access (in some OSes).
• Error Checking: Identifies bad sectors and recovers from disk failures.

4. Key terms in Disk Scheduling Algorithms.

i. Seek Time: Time taken by the disk arm to move the read/write head to the track where the
data is located.
• Importance: Lower seek time = faster data access.
• Optimization Goal: All scheduling algorithms aim to minimize seek time.

ii. Rotational Latency: Time taken for the desired sector of the disk to rotate under the
read/write head.
• Depends on: Disk’s rotational speed (RPM).
• Usually smaller than seek time, but still contributes to total access time.

iii. Transfer Time: Time taken to transfer data to/from the disk after the head is positioned.

iv. Access Time: Total time taken to read/write data from the disk.
Access Time = Seek Time + Rotational Latency + Transfer Time

v. Request Queue: List of pending I/O requests for specific disk tracks.
• Scheduling algorithms decide the order in which to serve these.

vi. Starvation: A situation where a request is never served because newer, closer requests
keep getting priority.
• Common in: SSTF algorithm.

vii. Fairness: Ensuring all requests get serviced in a reasonable time.

• Important for user experience and system stability.

viii. Direction Bit / Movement Direction: Indicates whether the disk head is moving inward
(toward lower tracks) or outward.
• Used in: SCAN, LOOK, C-SCAN, C-LOOK.

ix. Head Start Position: The current position of the disk head before starting to serve requests.
• Effects seek time and the behavior of all algorithms.

55
5. Explain different Disk scheduling algorithms.
i. FCFS (First Come First Serve): Requests are processed in the order they arrive.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
Example:
If the head is at 50, and requests come for: 82, 170, 43, 140, 24, 16, 190
Seek sequence: 50 → 82 → 170 → 43 → 140 → 24 → 16 → 190
Characteristics:
• Simple and fair.
• High total seek time.
• Does not consider request proximity.

ii. SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First): Selects the request closest to current head position.
Example:
Head at 50, requests: 82, 170, 43, 140, 24, 16, 190
Seek sequence: 50 → 43 → 24 → 16 → 82 → 140 → 170 → 190
Characteristics:
• Lower average seek time than FCFS.
• Starvation possible for far requests.

iii. SCAN (Elevator Algorithm): Head moves in one direction servicing all requests, then reverses.
Example:
Head at 50, direction: right
Requests: 82, 170, 43, 140, 24, 16, 190
Seek sequence: 50 → 82 → 140 → 170 → 190 → reverse → 43 → 24 → 16
(Moves toward higher track numbers first, then reverses to service lower ones).
Characteristics:
• More uniform wait times than SSTF.
• Edge requests may wait longer.

iv. C-SCAN (Circular SCAN): Moves in one direction only, then jumps to start and continues.
Example:
Head at 50, direction: right
Requests: 82, 170, 43, 140, 24, 16, 190
Seek sequence: 50 → 82 → 140 → 170 → 190 → jump to 0 → 16 → 24 → 43
(After reaching end, head jumps to track 0 without servicing).
Characteristics:
• Uniform wait time across requests.
• Longer travel distance.

v. LOOK: Similar to SCAN but head only goes as far as the last request in each direction (no
full sweep).
Example:
Head at 50, direction: right
Requests: 82, 170, 43, 140, 24, 16, 190
Seek sequence: 50 → 82 → 140 → 170 → 190 → reverse → 43 → 24 → 16

56
 Characteristics:
• Avoids unnecessary movement beyond last request.
• Requests in one direction may be serviced sooner, leading to directional bias.

gayatriandia015@[Link]
vi. C-LOOK: Like C-SCAN but only goes to the last request, then jumps back to the lowest request.
Example:
Head at 50, direction: right
Requests: 82, 170, 43, 140, 24, 16, 190
Seek sequence: 50 → 82 → 140 → 170 → 190 → jump to 16 → 24 → 43
Characteristics:
• More efficient than C-SCAN.
• Slightly more complex to implement.

MCQs
1. What is the primary purpose of disk 5. Which of the following is a disk
management in an operating scheduling algorithm that
system? processes requests in the order
A. To manage RAM allocation they arrive?
B. To control access to CPU registers A. SSTF
C. To manage storage devices and B. SCAN
data organization C. FCFS
D. To schedule processes D. C-LOOK
2. Which of the following is not a 6. Which algorithm selects the disk I/O
component of disk structure? request closest to the current head
A. Platter position?
B. Track A. FCFS
C. Sector B. SSTF
D. Register C. C-SCAN
D. LOOK
3. What does disk management do in
an OS? 7. Which disk scheduling algorithm
A. Controls CPU frequency moves the head in one direction,
B. Handles memory paging servicing requests, and then
C. Manages disk formatting, partitioning, reverses direction?
and file system handling A. LOOK
D. Schedules I/O interrupts B. SSTF
C. SCAN
4. In the context of disk scheduling,
D. C-LOOK
seek time refers to:
A. Time to transfer data from disk to 8. The C-SCAN algorithm differs from
memory SCAN in that:
B. Time to locate the correct sector on A. It services requests only in one
a track direction and jumps to the start
C. Time to rotate the disk under the B. It ignores all incoming I/O requests
read/write head C. It sorts requests in ascending order
D. Time to move the read/write head to D. It provides better seek time than
the correct track SSTF in all cases

57
9. In the LOOK algorithm, the disk 10. Which of the following algorithms is
arm: designed to reduce starvation in
A. Goes to the end of the disk before disk scheduling?

gayatriandia015@[Link]
reversing A. FCFS
B. Stops where there are no further B. SSTF
requests in the current direction C. SCAN
C. Ignores the last track D. Random
D. Moves continuously without reversing

ANSWER KEY
1. (C) 2. (D) 3. (C) 4. (D) 5. (C)
6. (B) 7. (C) 8. (A) 9. (B) 10. (C)

58