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Chapter I
Introduction to Integral Calculus
Integration as a process of summation
1.1 Introduction
The integral calculus was invented in the course of an endeavor to calculate the plane area
bounded by curves. The area was supposed to be divided into an infinitely great number of
infinitesimal parts, each part being called an element of the area, and the sum of these parts was
the area required. The process of finding this sum was called integration, a name which implies
the combination of the small areas into a whole, and hence the sum itself was called the whole or
the integral. The integral calculus can be used for two purposes namely:
To find the sum of an infinitely large number of infinitesimals of the form f(x)dx;
To find the function whose differential or whose differential coefficient is given, that is, to find
an anti-differential or anti-derivative.
From the point of view, integration may be defined as a process of summation. On the other
hand, integration may be defined as an operation which is the inverse of differentiation. In the
differential calculus, the letter d is used as the symbol of differentiation, and df(x) is read “the
differential of f(x)”. In the integral calculus the symbol was introduced by Leibniz and is
called integral sign and f ( x)dx is read “the integral of f ( x ) dx ”. The signs d and are signs
of operations, but they also indicate the results of the operations of differentiation and integration
respectively on the functions.
Antiderivatives: A differentiable function F(x) is called an antiderivatives of a function f(x) on
dF
some interval if at each point of the interval = f ( x ) for all x in the interval. If F(x) is any
dx
antiderivative of f(x), the indefinite integral of f(x), written f ( x)dx , is
f ( x)dx = F ( x) + c , where c is an arbitrary constant called the
constant of integration. The function f(x) is called the integrand of the integral. Thus, an
indefinite integral is a function, and an antiderivative and an indefinite integral can only differ by
an arbitrary additive constant.
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1.2 The Indefinite Integral
The process of calculating an integral or antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation or
integration. It is the inverse process of differentiation and a process of summation. A function
F(x) is said to be the antiderivative of the function f(x) on the interval (a, b) if
d
F ( x) = f ( x), x (a, b)
dx
f ( x)dx = F ( x) + c , where c is constant and known as constant of integration.
The expression f ( x)dx is called an indefinite integral. The adjective “indefinite” emphasizes
that the result of antidifferentiation is a “generic” function. Here the symbol is represents the
summation and stands for integral sign of the given function, the function f(x) is called the
integrand, and the constant C is called the constant of integration. In integration, the derivative
of some function is given and we are required to find that function.
Note:
The symbol is represents the summation and stands for integral of given function.
f(x), the function which is to be integrated, is called the integrand
f ( x)dx is called integral with respect to x.
c is called constant of integration and it means any real number.
The geometrical meaning assigned to the integral is area of some region.
Integral is used to find physical quantities like centre of mass, momentum etc.
d
f ( x )dx = f ( x )
dx
Theorem 1 If f(x) be an integral function on x, then
Proof: Let us consider that f ( x)dx = g ( x) + c.........................(i)
d
g ( x) = f ( x)
By definition, dx
d f ( x)dx = d g ( x) + c
dx dx
1.3 Properties of the Indefinite Integral
Suppose that F(x) and G(x) are antiderivatives of f(x) and g(x), respectively, and c is a constant,
then:
a) A constant factor can be moved throguh an integral sign, that is c f ( x)dx = cF ( x) + C
b) An antiderivative of a sum is the sum of the antiderivatives, that is
[ f ( x) + g ( x)]dx = F ( x) + G( x) + C
c) An antiderivative of a difference is the difference of the antiderivatives, that is
[ f ( x) − g ( x)]dx = F ( x) − G( x) + C
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1.4 Some standard Elementary Integrals
Based on differentiation and definition of integration, we have the following standard results.
The student is strongly advised to commit these results to memory, because no further progress is
otherwise possible.
Differentiation Integration Formula Differentiation Formula Integration Formula
Formula
d
0dx = c d
s ec x dx = tan x
2
(c ) = 0 (tan x) = sec 2 x
dx dx
d
k. dx = kx d
cos ec xdx = −cotx
2
(kx) = k (− cot x) = cos ec 2 x
dx dx
d
( x) = 1 1dx = x + c d
(sec x) = sec x tan x sec x tan xdx = sec x
dx dx
d x n +1
= x n
( n 1) x n
dx =
x n +1
( n 1)
d
(− cos ecx) = cos ecx cot x cos ecx cot x dx = − cos ecx
dx n + 1 n +1 dx
d
(sin x) = cos x cos x dx = sin x + c d
log x =
1 1
x = log x
dx dx x
d
( − cos x) = sin x sin xdx = − cos x d ax
=a
x
a . dx =
x ax
, a 0, a 1
dx dx log a log a
d x
e . dx = e
x x
(e ) = e x
dx
1.5 Differentiation and Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Formula
Differentiation Formula Integration Formula Differentiation Formula Integration Formula
d 1 1 d −1 −1
dx
(sin −1 x) =
1 − x2
1− x 2
dx = sin −1 x
dx
(cot −1 x) =
1 + x2 1+ x 2
dx = cot −1 x
d 1 −1 d 1 1
dx
(cos−1 x) = −
1 − x2
1− x 2
dx = cos−1 x
dx
(sec−1 x) =
x x2 −1
x x −12
dx = sec−1 x
d 1 1 d −1 −1
dx
(tan −1 x) =
1 + x2 1+ x 2
dx = tan −1 x
dx
(cosec−1 x) =
x x2 −1
x x −12
dx = cosec−1 x
d
Lemma 1: The differential operator and integration operator f dx , they subside each others.
dx
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Theorem 1 If c is a constant and f(x) is function, then fc( x)dx = c f ( x)dx
d = c d f ( x)dx
Proof:
dx fc ( x ) dx dx
d
fc( x)dx = cf ( x)
dx
or
c f ( x)dx = cf ( x)dx
d d
cf ( x)dx = c f ( x)dx (Proved) dx cf ( x)dx = c dx f ( x)
1.6 Trigonometric Integrals
Rule 1: Integrals in which the integrand is a product of sines and cosines of two different angles
can be evaluated with the help of the following identities:
Trigonometric Identities
2sin A cos B = sin( A + B) + sin( A − B) ,
2 cos A sin B = sin( A + B) − sin( A − B)
2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B ) ,
2sin A sin B = cos( A − B) − cos( A + B )
1 1
For example, sin 2 x cos x = sin(2 x + x) + sin(2 x − x) = (sin 3 x + sin x)
2 2
Rule 2: If any integral is of the form where sine or cosine is the form of powers, then before
integration, they should be reduced as multiple angles. For example, sin 2 x dx , sin 3 xdx
1 1 1
For example, sin 2 x = (1 − cos 2 x ) , cos 2 x = (1 + cos 2 x ) , sin 3 x = ( 3sin x − sin 3 x ) ,
2 2 4
1
cos3 x = ( 3cos x + cos 3x )
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Example 1 Evaluate the following integrals:
4 x2 − 2 x 1
i) dx ii) a .e
x x
dx iii) dx
x x + a − x −b
4 x2 − 2 x
i) Solution: Let I = dx
x
2
= 4x − dx
x
= 2 x2 − 4 x + c
(ac) x
ii) Solution: Let I = a x e x dx = (ac) x dx = + c1
log(ac)
5
1
iii) Solution: Let I=
x + a − x−b
x + a + x −b
= dx
( x + a − x −b )( x + a + x −b )
x + a + x −b
= dx
( x + a) − ( x − b)
1 1 1
=
a+b
( x + a ) 2
+ ( x − a ) 2
3 3
1 ( x + a) 2
( x − a) 2
= +
a +b 3/ 2 3/ 2
2 3 3
= ( x + a ) 2
+ ( x − a ) 2
+c
3(a + b)
42+ x + 42− x
Example 2 Evaluate the integral 2 x dx
42+ x + 42− x 24+ 2 x + 24− 2 x
Solution: Let I= dx = 2x dx
2x
= ( 24+ 2 x.2− x + 24−2 x.2− x ) dx
= ( 24+ x + 24−3 x ) dx = 24 2x dx + 24 2−3 x dx
−3 x
2x 4 2 1 16 x 1 −3 x
=2. 4
+2 . .(− ) + c = 2 − 2 +c
ln 2 ln 2 3 ln 2 3
Example 3 Evaluate the integral sin 2 x sin 3x dx
1
Solution: Let I = sin 2 x sin 3 x dx = cos(2 x − 3x) − cos(2 x + 3 x) dx
2
1 1 1
I = cos x − cos 5 x dx = [sin x + sin 5 x] + c
2 2 5
1
Example 4 Evaluate the integral dx
1 + sin x
1 1 − sin x 1 − sin x
Solution: Let I = dx = dx = dx
1 + sin x (1 + sin x)(1 − sin x) (1 − sin 2 x
1 − sin x 1 sin x
= dx = 2 − 2
dx = sec2 x − tan x sec x dx
2
cos x cos x cos x
= tan x − sec x + c
6
sin x + cos x
Example 5 Evaluate the integral dx
1 + sin 2 x
sin x + cos x
Solution: Let I = dx
1 + sin 2 x
sin x + cos x
= dx
sin 2 x + cos2 x + 2sin x cos x
sin x + cos x
= dx
(sin x + cos x)2
sin x + cos x
= dx
sin x + cos x
= 1dx = x + c
Example 6 Evaluate cos3 xdx
1 1
Solution:: Let I= cos3 xdx = 4 cos3 xdx = (3cos x + cos 3 x)dx
4 4
1 1
cos xdx = (3sin x + sin 3 x) + c
3
4 3
a sin3 x + b cos3 x
Example 7 Evaluate sin 2 x cos2 x
dx
a sin3 x + b cos3 x a sin3 x b cos3 x
Solution: Let I= sin 2 x cos2 x
dx = 2
sin x cos2 x
dx + 2
sin x cos2 x
dx
sin x cos x
= a 2
dx + b 2 dx = a tan x sec x dx + b cot x cos ecx dx
cos x sin x
= a sec x − b cos ecx + k , Where k is an integrating constant.
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Example 8 Evaluate dx
sin( x − a)sin( x − b)
1
Solution: Let I= dx
sin( x − a)sin( x − b)
1 sin ( x − a) − ( x − b) 1 sin( x − a) cos( x − b) − cos( x − a)sin( x − b)
=
sin(b − a) sin( x − a)sin( x − b)
dx =
sin(b − a) sin( x − a)sin( x − b)
dx
1 sin( x − a) cos( x − b) 1 cos( x − a)sin( x − b)
=
sin(b − a) sin( x − a)sin( x − b)
dx −
sin(b − a) sin( x − a)sin( x − b)
dx
1 cos( x − b) 1 cos( x − a)
=
sin(b − a) sin( x − b)
dx −
sin(b − a) sin( x − a)
dx
1
= log sin( x − b) − log sin( x − a) + c
sin(b − a )
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1 sin( x − b)
= log +c
sin(b − a) log sin( x − a)
sin 2 x
Example 9 Evaluate sin 5 x sin 3xdx
sin 2 x
Solution: Let I = dx
sin 5 x sin 3 x
sin(5 x − 3 x) sin 5 x cos 3 x − cos 5 x sin 3 x
= dx = dx
sin 5 x sin 3 x sin 5 x sin 3 x
sin 5 x cos 3 x cos 5 x sin 3 x
= dx − dx
sin 5 x sin 3 x sin 5 x sin 3 x
cos 3 x cos 5 x
= dx − dx
sin 3 x sin 5 x
1 1
= log sin 3 x − log sin 5 x + c
3 5
Example 10 Evaluate sin(3x / 2) cos ec(7 x / 2) cos ec( x / 2)dx
Solution: Let I = sin(3x / 2) cos ec(7 x / 2) cos ec( x / 2)dx
sin(3x / 2) sin 3x
= dx = dx
sin(7 x / 2)sin( x / 2) sin(7 x / 2)sin( x / 2)
sin(7 x / 2 − x / 2) sin 7 x / 2 cos x / 2 − cos 7 x / 2sin x / 2
= dx = dx
sin(7 x / 2)sin( x / 2) sin(7 x / 2) sin( x / 2)
sin 7 x / 2 cos x / 2 cos 7 x / 2sin x / 2
= dx − dx
sin(7 x / 2) sin( x / 2) sin(7 x / 2) sin( x / 2)
cos x / 2 cos 7 x / 2
= dx − dx
sin( x / 2) sin(7 x / 2)
= 2 log sin( x / 2) − 7 log sin(7 x / 2) + c
cos 2 − cos 2
Example 11 Evaluate cos − cos
d
cos 2 − cos 2 (2 cos 2 − 1) − (2 cos 2 − 1)
Solution: Let I = d = d
cos − cos cos − cos
cos 2 − cos 2 (cos + cos )(cos − cos )
= 2 d = 2 d
cos − cos cos − cos
= 2 (cos + cos )d = 2(sin + cos ) + c
( x 2 + sin 2 x)sec2 x
Example 12 Evaluate 1 + x2
dx
( x 2 + sin 2 x)sec2 x
Solution: Let I = dx
1 + x2
8
( x 2 + 1 − cos 2 x)sec2 x x2 + 1 1
= dx = 2 −
x + 1 1 + x 2
dx
1 + x2
−1
1 = x − tan x + c
= 1 − dx
1 + x2
Example 13 Evaluate sin 5 x cos 2 xdx
Solution: Let I = sin 5 x cos 2 xdx
( sin x ) cos x sin xdx
2 2 2
=
= (1 − cos2 x ) cos 2 x sin xdx
2
[Putting cos x = u −du = sin xdx
= (1 − u 2 )2 u 2 (−du )
= (1 − 2u 2 + u 4 ) u 2 (−du )
= − (u 2 − 2u 4 + u 6 )du
u3 u5 u 7
=− +2 − +c
3 5 7
1 2 1
= − cos3 x + cos5 x − cos7 x + c
3 5 7
Example 14 Evaluate sin 4 xdx
Solution: Let I = sin 4 xdx
2 1 − 2 cos 2 x + cos 2 2 x
( ) 1 − cos 2 x
2
= sin x dx =
2
dx = dx
2 4
1 1
= 1 − 2cos 2 x + 2cos 2 2 x dx [by integrating we get ]
4 2
1 2 1 1
= x − . sin 2 x + (1 + cos 4 x)dx
4 4 2 8
1 1 1 1
= x − sin 2 x + x + sin 4 x + c
4 4 8 32
1 3 1
= x − sin 2 x + sin 4 x + c
4 2 9
Theorem 1: The integral of a fraction whose numerator is the derivative of the denominator is
log deno min ator .
f ( x)
i.e., .dx = log f ( x) + c
f ( x)
1.7 Linear and Quadratic Denominators
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Example 8 Evaluate dx
ax + b
9
1
Solution: Let I = dx
ax + b
1
Putting ax + b = u dx = du
a
1 1 1 1
= du = ln u + c = ln ax + b + c
a u a a
1 1
Therefore, the case of a linear denominator ax + bdx = a ln ax + b + c