Al al-Bayt University

Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Laboratory (704363)

# Experiments Page
1 Liquid Properties (Density, Specific Weight, Specific Gravity 1
and Viscosity)
2 Reynold’s Number 5
3 Pressure in plane surface 8
4 Force of Jet 11
5 Bernoulli’s Equation 14
6 Measurements of pipe flow 18
7 Friction head loss in pipes 21
8 Minor head losses due to fittings in pipes 24
9 Open channel flow measurements 25
10 Pumps 27
 Liquid Properties (Density, Specific Weight, Specific Gravity and Viscosity)

Introduction
Density:
The density of a material ( ) is the mass per a given volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ............................................................................................................................................ (3)
So the unit of a density is mass unit per volume unit, in SI unit it is kg/m 3 where in British units it is
lb/ft3

Specific Weight
The specific weight of a material ( ) is the weight per a given volume.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝑔
𝛾 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 ..................................................................................................... (2)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
So the unit of a specific weight is weight (force) unit per volume unit, in SI unit it is N/m3 where in
British units it is lbf/ft3

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a material (S.G.) is the density of a material compared to the density of water
or specific weight of a material compared to the specific weight of water
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑆. 𝐺. = = ................................................................................................................... (3)
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
So the specific gravity has no unit and the density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 (it is slightly changed with
temperature)

Viscosity
The transport and accumulation of sediment in waterways and reservoirs, the movement of dust and
other pollutant particles in the atmosphere, and the flow of liquids through porous media are examples
of phenomena in which drag forces play important roles. Drag forces can be expressed as functions
of a particle’s size and velocity, as well as properties of the surrounding fluid.
Consider a sphere that is dropped into a column of fluid. The sphere will eventually reach a constant
terminal velocity at which acceleration has ceased. The surface and body forces acting on the sphere
are the drag force, FD, buoyant force, FB, and gravity force, W.

Page 1 of 29
 Figure 1: Free Body Diagram of Falling Sphere

Where V is the sphere fall velocity, 𝜸𝒔 and 𝜸𝒍 are specific weights of the sphere and surrounding fluid,
respectively, CD is the coefficient of drag, and 𝝆𝒍 is the mass density of the fluid. Using d as the
diameter of the sphere, and given that the volume of the sphere, Vs, is  d3/6 and the projected area
of the sphere, Ap, is  d2/4, a summation of vertical forces yields

𝜋𝑑2 𝜌𝑙 𝑉 2 𝜋𝑑3 𝜋𝑑3

∑ 𝐹 = 0 = 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵 − 𝑊 = [𝐶𝐷 ] + [𝛾𝑙 ] − [𝛾𝑠 ] ..................................................... (4)
4 2 6 6

An expression for the drag coefficient can be obtained by solving equation (1) for CD
as follows
4 d (γs −γl )
CD = ..................................................................................................................................... (5)
3 ρl V2

Thus for a sphere moving through a known fluid, the sphere’s velocity may be measured and used
to compute the coefficient of drag.
For viscous fluids and a low velocity (i.e. low Reynolds number), the drag force has been shown to be

𝐹𝐷 = 3 𝜋 𝜇 𝑑 𝑉 .................................................................................................................................... (6)

Which is known as Stoke’s Law. Solution to (4) can yield the dynamic, or absolute, viscosity, .

𝑑2 (𝛾𝑠 −𝛾𝑙 )
𝜇= ........................................................................................................................................ (7)
18 𝑉

The sphere’s velocity can also be used to compute the Reynolds number, given as:-

𝜌𝑉𝑑
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇
............................................................................................................................................. (8)

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Comparing the general drag force expression, given in Figure 1, with Stoke’s Law, it found that for
highly laminar flows, or flows having Re <1:
24
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅 ................................................................................................................................................ (9)
𝑒

In logarithmic form, equation (9) is:

𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐶𝐷 ) = −𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑅𝑒 ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(24) ..................................................................................................... (10)

Objective
Determine the density, specific weight and the viscosity of liquids at room temperature. Also determine a
relationship between the coefficient of drag and the Reynolds number.

Apparatus
1) Two liquids contained in transparent vertical tubes,
2) Calibrated volumetric containers,
3) Thermometer.
4) Stopwatch.
5) Spheres of varying density and/or diameter,
6) Weighing balance

Procedure
Finding Density and Specific Weight:
1. Record the temperature of the liquids (use the ambient temperature if the liquids have been in
the room for a long period of time).
2. Take the mass of empty clean calibrated volumetric container, M1
3. Fill the calibrated volumetric container with Liquid A to the mark and record the mass of the
calibrated volumetric container filled with the liquid, M2
4. Calculate the liquid density as the mass of the liquid in the container (M2-M1) divided by the
volume of the calibrated volumetric container
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for Liquid B and fill the results in Table-1

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Finding Viscosity:
6. Use the calculated densities the specific weights of each liquid in the previous part.
7. Measure the diameter for each sphere with a micrometer.
8. Fill two tubes with Liquid A and Liquid B
9. Measure and record a vertical fall distance on each tube
10. Drop a sphere into the liquid and time the descent through the marked distance using the
stopwatch and record the travel time. (The sphere should be dropped just at the fluid level so
that the sphere will achieve terminal velocity prior to the marked distance)
11. Repeat step 9 for each sphere.
12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 for each tube.
13. Fill the measurements into Table-3 and do the calculations

Results
Finding Density and Specific Weight:
1. For each Liquid, calculate density using equation (1),
2. For each Liquid, calculate specific weigh using equation (2)
3. For each Liquid, calculate specific gravity using equation (3)
4. Fill the results into Table-1

Finding Viscosity:
5. Use the density and specific weight of each liquid computed in Table-1,
6. Use the spheres information given in Table-2
7. For each trail calculate the sphere velocity as the marked distance divided by falling time,
8. For each trail compute:
a. The drag coefficient, CD, using Equation (5),
b. The dynamic viscosity of the fluid, , using Equation (7)
c. The Reynolds number, Re, using Equation (8)
9. Fill the results into Table-3
10. Construct a logarithmic plot of Re (abscissa) of the fluid vs. CD (ordinate) of the spheres.
11. Determine the equation of the line created in step (10) and the associated R 2 value, and show
them on the graph.
12. Discuss the extent to which the equation matches equation (9) derived from Stokes Law?
13. What conclusions can you draw from the results obtained for the two different liquids?

Page 4 of 29
 Osborne Reynolds Demonstration

Introduction
A flow can behave in very different ways depending upon which forces predominate within it. Slow
flows are dominated by viscous forces, tend to be well ordered and predictable and are described as
laminar. In laminar pipe flow the fluid behaves as if concentric layers (laminar) are sliding over each
other with a maximum velocity on the axis, zero velocity at the tube wall and a parabolic velocity
distribution. Dye injected carefully at a point in a laminar pipe flow will be stretched out by the flow to
form a clear well defined line. The only mixing that can occur is by molecular diffusion.
Increasing the flow rate substantially will alter the flow behavior dramatically, as the inertia of the fluid
(due to its density) becomes more significant than the viscous forces; this is then a turbulent flow. In
turbulent pipe flow, dye injected at a point is rapidly mixed due to the substantial lateral motion in the
flow and the dye behavior appears chaotic. These motions appear random and arise from the growth of
instabilities in the flow. Detailed behavior is impossible to predict except in statistical terms.
There is an in-between stage, transitional flow, in which a dye stream will appear to wander about and
will show intermittent bursts of mixing, followed by a more laminar behavior.
The Reynolds number, Re, provides a useful way of characterizing the flow, it is defined as:

𝑑𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝑅𝑒 = = (1)
𝜐 𝜇

where 𝝊 is the kinematic viscosity, 𝝁 is the Dynamic (absolute) viscosity, V is the mean velocity given
in terms of the volume flow rate and d is the diameter of the pipe.
It is common practice to take a Reynolds number of 2,000 as the value which divides laminar from
turbulent flow. However, this does not take account of the transition region and it may also be possible
(with great care) to keep a flow laminar for Reynolds numbers up to 10,000 or more. Also, pipe flows
with Reynolds number less than 1,800 are inherently laminar.

Objective
To observe laminar, transitional and turbulent pipe flow.

Apparatus
Osborne Reynolds Demonstration

Procedure
1) With the apparatus flow control valve open slightly, and the bench valve adjusted to produce a
slow trickle through the overflow pipe, adjust the dye control valve until a slow flow with clear dye
indication is achieved.
2) In order to observe the velocity profile in laminar flow, close the bench valve and open the dye
control valve to deposit a drop of dye at the bell mouth entry.
3) When the outlet control valve is opened observe the dye as it deforms to take up a three
dimensional parabolic profile.
4) Measure the volume flow rate by timed collection,
5) Measure the outflow temperature (the temperature of the water gathered in the measuring cylinder).
6) Determine the kinematic viscosity from the data provided in Kinematic Viscosity Table
7) Check the Reynolds’ number corresponding to this flow type.
8) Increase the flow rate by opening the apparatus flow control valve and repeat the dye injections to

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visualize transitional flow and then, at the highest flow rates, turbulent flow, as characterized by
continuous and very rapid mixing of the dye.

Figure 2-1

Re < 2000 2000 < Re < 4000 Re > 4000

Figure 2-2

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 Dynamic
Kinematic
Temperature Density,  (Absolute)
viscosity, 
viscosity, 
°C kg/m3 kg/m.s m2/s
0 999.82 0.001792 1.79210-6
1 999.89 0.001731 1.73110-6
2 999.94 0.001674 1.67410-6
3 999.98 0.00162 1.62010-6
4 1000 0.001569 1.56910-6
5 1000 0.00152 1.52010-6
6 999.99 0.001473 1.47310-6
7 999.96 0.001429 1.42910-6
8 999.91 0.001386 1.38610-6
9 999.85 0.001346 1.34610-6
10 999.77 0.001308 1.308 10-6
11 999.68 0.001271 1.271 10-6
12 999.58 0.001236 1.237 10-6
13 999.46 0.001202 1.203 10-6
14 999.33 0.00117 1.171 10-6
15 999.19 0.001139 1.140 10-6
16 999.03 0.001109 1.110 10-6
17 998.86 0.001081 1.082 10-6
18 998.68 0.001054 1.055 10-6
19 998.49 0.001028 1.030 10-6
20 998.29 0.001003 1.005 10-6
21 998.08 0.000979 9.809 10-7
22 997.86 0.000955 9.570 10-7
23 997.62 0.000933 9.352 10-7
24 997.38 0.000911 9.134 10-7
25 997.13 0.000891 8.936 10-7
26 996.86 0.000871 8.737 10-7
27 996.59 0.000852 8.549 10-7
28 996.31 0.000833 8.361 10-7
29 996.02 0.000815 8.183 10-7
30 995.71 0.000798 8.014 10-7

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 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Introduction
Review the derivation of the resultant magnitude and point of action of hydrostatic force on a
submerged plane surface. List these expressions for a vertical surface that is (a) partially submerged,
and (b) fully submerged

Figure 3-1 – Center of Pressure

(5) When the surface is fully submerged (Fig3-2)

Figure 3-2 – Surface is fully submerged

𝐴 = 𝑏 𝑑 ........................................................................................................................................... (1)
𝑏𝑑3
𝐼𝐺 = .......................................................................................................................................... (2)
12
̅ = 𝑦 − 𝑑 ....................................................................................................................................... (3)
𝐻 2
𝐼
𝐻𝑃 = 𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝐻 ̅, 𝜃 = 90𝑜 .............................................................................................. (4)
̅
𝐴𝐻
𝑏𝑑3 2
̅ = 𝑑 +𝐻
𝐻𝑃 = 12(𝑏.𝑑).𝐻̅ + 𝐻 ̅ ...................................................................................................... (5)
̅
12𝐻
𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑃. 𝐴 = 𝛾. 𝐻. 𝐴 = 𝛾. (𝑦 − 2 ) . (𝑏. 𝑑) (𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) ....................................................... (6)
Σ𝑀@𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 = 0 ⟹ 𝑀𝑔𝐿 = 𝐹. (𝑎 + 𝑑 − 𝑦 + 𝐻𝑃 ).......................................................................... (7)

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 𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝐹= (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) ....................................................................................... (8)
𝑎+𝑑−𝑦+𝐻𝑃

(b) When the surface is partially submerged (Fig 3-3):

Figure 3-3 – surface is partially submerged

𝐴 = 𝑏 𝑦 ........................................................................................................................................... (9)
𝑏𝑦 3
𝐼𝐺 = 12 ........................................................................................................................................ (10)
𝐻̅ = 𝑦 ............................................................................................................................................ (11)
2
𝑏𝑦 3 𝑦 2
𝐻𝑃 = 12(𝑏.𝑦).𝐻̅ + (2) = 3 𝑦 .......................................................................................................... (12)
̅ . 𝐴 = 𝛾. (𝑦) . (𝑏. 𝑦) = 1 𝛾𝑏𝑦 2 (𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) .................................................. (13)
𝐹 = 𝑃. 𝐴 = 𝛾. 𝐻
2 2
Σ𝑀@𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 = 0 ⟹ 𝑀𝑔𝐿 = 𝐹. (𝑎 + 𝑑 − 𝑦 + 𝐻𝑃 )........................................................................ (14)
𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝐹= 𝑦 (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)............................................................................................ (15)
𝑎+𝑑−
3

Objective
To verify the theoretical prediction of the resultant hydrostatic force and its point of action on both (a)
partially submerged and (b) fully submerged plane surface in a liquid.

Apparatus
Hydrostatic Force Demonstration Unit (Fig3-4)

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 Figure 3-4

Procedure
1. Measure the dimensions a, b and d of the quadrant, and the distance between the pivot and the
weight hanger L.
2. Insert the quadrant into the tank locating the balance arm on the knife edges.
3. Adjust the counter-balance weight until the balance arm is horizontal, as indicated on the datum
level indicator.
4. Add all the weights supplied to the weight. Fill the tank with water until the balance beam
tips lifting the weights then drain out a small quantity of water to bring the balance arm horizontal,
don’t level the balance arm by adjustment of the counter balance weight or the datum setting
of the balance arm will be lost. Record the water level shown on the scale.
5. Fine adjustment of the water level may be achieved by over-filling and slowly draining, using the
drain valve.
6. Remove one or more weights from the weight carrier and level the balance arm by draining out
more of the water. When the arm is level record the depth of immersion shown on the scale on the
quadrant.
7. Repeat reading for reducing masses on the weight carrier.

Results
1. For each trial, compute the depth of center of pressure, practical end force and theoretical end
force,
2. Plot the Practical End Force with the Theoretical End Force and draw the best fit line,
3. Discuss the results

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 Impact of jet

Introduction
Consider a jet of water striking a stationary plate as shown below. The jet is deflected with a resulting
exchange in momentum. From Newton’s second law of motion, the momentum flux in the control
volume equals the magnitude of the net reaction exerted by the plate.

Figure 4-1

Here it is assumed that the pressure in the streams that are leaving the control volume is equal to that
entering the control volume. It is also assumed that surface resistance of the plate does not
appreciably affect the velocity of the jet. If the control volume is drawn so that only the jet is
included, the linear momentum equation can be applied to determine the reactive force on the plate.

∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝑄𝑉
⃗⃗𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝜌𝑄𝑉
⃗⃗𝑖𝑛 ....................................................................................................................... (1)
A summation of surface forces in the vertical direction yields

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = (𝜌𝑄𝑉𝑦 )𝑜𝑢𝑡 − (𝜌𝑄𝑉𝑦 )𝑖𝑛 ............................................................................................................. (2)

where 𝐹 represents surface and body forces, 𝜌 is the mass density, 𝑄 is the volumetric flow rate
and 𝑉𝑦 denotes the velocity in the vertical direction.

If a weight 𝑊 is applied to the weight platform and transmitted to the jet as a resistance, then

𝑊 = −𝛴𝐹𝑦 ........................................................................................................................................... (3)

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑄𝑉
𝑊 ⃗⃗𝑖𝑛 − 𝜌𝑄𝑉
⃗⃗𝑜𝑢𝑡 ......................................................................................................................... (4)

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 Figure 4-2

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉1 − 𝜌𝑄𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉1 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) ..................................................................................... (5)

𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔 .............................................................................................................................................. (6)
Take Bernoulli’s equation between the outlet of the nozzle (0) and the target (1):
𝑃0 0 𝑉2 𝑃1 1 𝑉2
+ 𝑧0 + 2𝑔 = + 𝑧1 + 2𝑔 ............................................................................................................... (7)
𝛾 𝛾
Where 𝑃0 is the pressure at the nozzle outlet, 𝑧0 is the position of the nozzle outlet, 𝑉0 is the outlet
speed from the nozzle, 𝑃1 is the pressure after the impact on target, 𝑧1 is the position of the impact
target, 𝑉1is the impact speed on the target,
𝑃0 𝑃1
= = 0 and 𝑧1 − 𝑧0 = 𝑠
𝛾 𝛾

𝑉12 = 𝑉02 − 2𝑔𝑠 .................................................................................................................................... (8)

𝑉1 = √𝑉02 − 2𝑔𝑠 .................................................................................................................................. (9)
𝑄
𝑉0 = 𝐴 ............................................................................................................................................... (10)
0

Where 𝐴0 is the area of the nozzle and 𝑠 is the distance between the nozzle and the target = 20 mm

Objective
The objective is to calculate the reactive force on a plate by means of the linear momentum equation,
and to compare computed results with observed values.

Apparatus
Impact Jet Apparatus,
Targets: Flat (𝜃 = 90𝑜 ) Hemisphere (𝜃 = 180𝑜 ) and Conical (𝜃 = 45𝑜 )
Hydraulic Bench
Stopwatch

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 Figure 4-3

Procedure
1) Select the nozzle diameter (5 or 8 mm) and the Target shape (flat, hemisphere or conical) and fix
the apparatus. Make sure that the pointer points to the middle point when there is no weights on
the weight platform and no flow out of the nozzle
2) Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating valve until it
is nearly fully open.
3) The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Place weights onto the weight platform
until the weight platform is again floating in mid position, you might need to regulate the flow rate
to get the pointer to the mid position. Observe the form of the deflected jet and note its shape.
4) Measure the flow rate (volume collected in certain time) and record the result on the test sheet,
together with the corresponding value of additional weight on the tray.
5) Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of the weight platform
by regulating the flow rate. Record the value of the flow rate and weights on the weight carrier.
6) Repeat step (5) and fill the data on one of the tables bellow
7) Close the control valve and switch off the pump. Allow the apparatus to drain
8) Replace the nozzle and/or the target and repeat steps 2 to 7

Results
1) Record the results on a copy of the result sheet provided.
2) Calculate for each result the flow rate and the nozzle exit velocity 𝑉0. Correct the nozzle velocity
for the height of the target above the nozzle to obtain the impact velocity 𝑉1.
3) Calculate the impact momentum 𝜌𝑄𝑉1, and plot graphs of the impact force 𝑊 against impact
momentum 𝜌𝑄𝑉1 and determine the slope of the graphs for each target.
4) Compare with the theoretical values 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.

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 Bernoulli’s Equation

Introduction
The Bernoulli equation is one of the most widely used, and misused, equations in the analysis of fluid
flow. It attempts to relate the pressure, elevation, and velocity between any two points in an inviscid
(ideal), constant density fluid flowing at steady state. Consider a differential fluid element aligned
along a streamline. A streamline is a line drawn in the flow field in such a manner that the velocity
vector at each and every point on the streamline is tangent to the streamline at any instant. For this
case, 𝑠 is the direction of the streamline, Δ𝑧 is the vertical height of the fluid element, Δ𝐴 is the
cross-sectional area of the element, 𝑃 is the pressure, 𝑉 is velocity of the fluid, 𝑊 is the weight
of the fluid element, and 𝜃 is the angle that the element makes with the horizontal.

Figure 5-1: Differential Fluid Element and Streamline

Application of Newton’s second law in the direction of flow yields

𝛴 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑠 ......................................................................................................................................... (1)
𝛥𝑃
𝑃 𝛥𝐴 − (𝑃 + 𝛥𝑠) 𝛥𝐴 − 𝛾 𝛥𝑠 𝛥𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜌 𝛥𝑠 𝛥𝐴 𝑎𝑠 .................................................................. (2)
𝛥𝑠
where 𝐹𝑠 represents the external forces acting along the streamline, 𝑚 is the mass of the fluid
element, 𝑎𝑠 is the acceleration of the fluid element along the streamline, and 𝛾 and 𝜌 are the specific
weight and density of the fluid, respectively. Noting that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is equivalent to Δ𝑧/Δ𝑠, a little algebraic
manipulation yields
𝛥𝑃 𝛥𝑧
− –𝛾 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑠 ............................................................................................................................ (3)
𝛥𝑠 𝛥𝑠
In the limit, as Δ𝑠 approaches zero,
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑧
− 𝜕𝑠
–𝛾 𝜕𝑠
= 𝜌 𝑎𝑠 ............................................................................................................................ (4)
which is known as Euler’s, equation of motion. Also consider that since velocity is a function of time
and position along the streamline acceleration along a streamline can be expressed as

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 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑠 = + 𝑉 .................................................................................................................................. (5)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠
For steady flow, the time dependent term approaches zero, and with application of the product rule
equation (5) reduces to
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 2
𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉 =2 ............................................................................................................................... (6)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
Substituting (6) into (4), yields
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑉 2
+ 𝛾 +2 = 0 ........................................................................................................................ (7)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
If density is held constant, integration over 𝑠 gives
𝜌𝑉 2
𝑃+ 𝛾 𝑧+ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ................................................................................................................ (8)
2
Finally, dividing by the specific weight yields the Bernoulli equation
𝑃 𝑉2
+ 𝑧 + 2𝑔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐻 .............................................................................................................. (9)
𝛾
where 𝐻 is total energy head. The first term on the left hand side of the Bernoulli equation is known as
the pressure head, the second is the elevation head, and the third is the velocity head. The equation,
therefore, provides a relation between pressure, elevation and velocity for any two points in a flow
field that is frictionless, steady, incompressible and homogeneous. It is also frequently expressed as

𝑃1 1 𝑉2 𝑃2 2 𝑉2
+ 𝑧1 + 2𝑔 = + 𝑧2 + 2𝑔 ............................................................................................................. (10)
𝛾 𝛾
If the flow system is horizontal, the elevation differences can be neglected and the Bernoulli
equation then reduces to

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 2 𝑉2
+ = + 2𝑔 ............................................................................................................................... (11)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Objective
The objective is to evaluate the validity of the Bernoulli equation by determining if the summation
of pressure head and velocity head is constant at several locations in a horizontal duct.

Apparatus
Armfield Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus (Model F1-15)

Hydraulic Bench

Stopwatch

Page 15 of 29
 Figure 5-2

Procedure
1) Record the interior diameter and compute the cross-sectional area of the test section at each of the
pressure tap locations (h1 to h6).
2) Record the distance from the upstream end of the test section to each of the pressure tap locations.
3) With the bench control valve and outlet control valve closed, start the pump. If needed, bleed any
air from the interior of the manometers.
4) Very gradually open both valves and adjust them such that the fluid level in each of the
manometers can be clearly read using the permanent scale.
5) Determine the flow rate using hydraulic bench volumetric tank and measuring the time required
to accumulate a known volume of water. Take three measurements of flow rate and calculate the
average flow rate
6) With the stagnation probe retracted, but not completely withdrawn, from the test section, record
the fluid level in each of the first six test section manometers. Each manometer measures static
pressure head h at its tapping point, and the corresponding scale is in mm of water.
7) Traverse the stagnation probe along the length of the test section, and at each tap, record the level
in the associated manometer, or the stagnation pressure head Hs. The stagnation head represents
total energy head since the fluid velocity at the stagnation point is zero.

Results
1) Use the values of flow rate and cross-sectional area to compute flow velocity and velocity head at
each pressure tap location.
2) For each flow rate, determine the total energy head H at each location by summing the static
pressure head h and velocity head.
3) On one drawing, plot the total energy head computed in (2), the stagnation pressure head, the static
pressure head, and velocity head vs. approximate distance from the upstream end of the test
section.
4) Qualitatively compare the values for total head obtained from (2) with those obtained by measuring
stagnation pressure Hs.

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5) Discuss the validity of the Bernoulli equation for the flow of water through the horizontal test
section. As justification, make reference to the applicability of the assumptions that are made in the
derivation of the equation.

Manometer No Diameter (mm)

h1 25.0
h2 13.9
h3 11.8
h4 10.7
h5 10.0
h6 25.0
Figure 5-3: Venturi Dimensions (mm)

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 Flow Measurements in Pipes

Purpose:
To study some of the famous instruments used in flow measurements in closed conduits (pipes).

Theory:
There are many instruments used in flow measurements such as Venturi meter, orifice plate and Pitot
tube.
Using Bernoulli Equation, the discharge equations for the flow meters are:

For Venturi meter and Orifice meter:

Figure 8-1 Venture Meter

Figure 8-2 Orifice Meter

Applying the Bernoulli equation between the shown stations (1) and (2) along the center we get:
𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑉22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Assuming that the venture and orifice meters are horizontal (Z1 = Z2), and that the flow is uniform at
both stations (thus: V1 = Q/A1 and V2 = Q/A2), the above equation becomes:
𝑄2 𝑃1 𝑄2 𝑃2
2 + = 2 +
2𝑔𝐴1 𝛾 2𝑔𝐴1 𝛾
Solving the above equation with respect to Q we get:

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 𝐴2 ∆𝑃
𝑄= √2𝑔 √
𝛾
√1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2
𝐶𝐷 𝐴2
𝑄= √2𝑔 √∆ℎ
√1 − 𝛽 4
𝐷2
𝛽=
𝐷1
∆𝑃
∆ℎ =
𝛾

For Pitot tube:

Figure 8-3 Pitot Tube

2
𝑉 2 𝑃1 𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑉𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0 and 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
𝑉 2 𝑃1 𝑃2
+ =
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝑉 = √2𝑔 √∆ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴 √2𝑔 √∆ℎ
∆𝑝
∆ℎ =
𝛾

Apparatus
ElectronicaVeneta Fluid Friction Apparatus (Model HB21/EV)
Hydraulic Bench
Stopwatch

Page 19 of 29
 Figure 8-4

Procedure:
1) Prepare the instruments, close valves V3, V4, V5 and V6. Open V1, V2 and V7.
2) Switch the pump on , allow the water to enter the flow measurement instruments ,
3) Control the flow valve in hydraulic bench to obtain different readings of the heads in
manometers and the corresponding flow from the volume tank.
4) Record the results.

Results
1) Calculate the head losses (h) from the manometer readings (equal the reading of H2O
manometer OR the reading of Hg manometer x 12.6) and the flow rate (Q) for Venturi meter,
Orifice plate and Pitot tube,
2) For each one, plot the discharge (Q) with the square root of head loss (√∆𝒉) and draw the best
fit line passing through 0,
3) Find the slope of the best fit line and calculate the discharge or correction coefficients, CD for
Venturi meter and Orifice plate.

Page 20 of 29
 Friction Head Loss in Pipes
Introduction
The losses of energy in conduits flowing full of a liquid usually result from the resistance of the
conduit walls to the flow, or from pipe appurtenances (e.g. elbows, contractions, valves) that cause the
flow velocity to be changed in magnitude and/or direction. These energy losses must be calculated so
that, for example, the proper size and number of pumps can be specified in the design of a municipal
water distribution system; the conduit size for a gravity-flow urban drainage project may be
determined; or the optimal size of valves and the radius of curvature of pipe elbows can be stipulated
in the specifications of a pipeline design.

When the ratio of the length of a pipeline, L, to its diameter, D, exceeds 2000:1, or when pipe
appurtenances are not present in a pipe, energy losses, also called head losses, are predominantly the
result of internal pipe friction. The remaining losses that result from pipe appurtenances are termed
minor losses.

To determine the head loss for a pipe system, consider the energy equation written between two
sections of the pipe,

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉2
2
+ + 𝑧1 = + 2𝑔 + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿 ..................................................................................................... (1)
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
where 𝑧 is the elevation of the centerline of the pipe relative to an arbitrary datum, 𝑉 is flow velocity,
𝑔 is the gravitational constant, 𝑃 is pressure at the centerline of the pipe, 𝛾 is the specific gravity of
the fluid, and ℎ𝐿 is the total energy loss between sections 1 and 2, which is limited to frictional
losses only, ℎ𝑓 , when minor losses are negligible.

The velocity in equation (1) can be evaluated if the flow rate and pipe dimensions are known. If
the pressure at sections 1 and 2 can be measured, the energy equation can then be used to evaluate the
unknown head loss through the pipe.

For horizontal uniform pipe, 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 and 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 , equation (1) becomes:

𝑃1 𝑃2
ℎ𝐿 = − ........................................................................................................................................ (2)
𝛾 𝛾
A second method for evaluating head loss employs the Darcy-Weisbach equation and the Moody
diagram. The former can be used to directly evaluate energy loss caused by pipe friction and is
expressed as:
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔 .......................................................................................................................................... (3)
where 𝑓 is the dimensionless Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, 𝐿 is the length of pipe section, and 𝐷 is
the pipe diameter.

The Moody diagram illustrates the relationship between the friction factor, 𝑓, the Reynolds number,
𝑅𝑒 , and relative roughness of the pipe 𝑒⁄𝐷. On this diagram there are three zones of flow; laminar,

Page 21 of 29
transitional, and turbulent. Following the Moody diagram, the following equations can be used to
determine a friction factor, 𝑓,

For smooth pipes, where 𝑓 is a function of the Reynolds number only, given as:
𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = .................................................................................................................................... (4)
𝜈 𝜇
where  is the kinematic viscosity,  is the density and  is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity of fluid.
64
Laminar Flow (Re < 2000) 𝑓 = 𝑅 ............................................................................... (5)
𝑒
0.316
Transitional Flow (2000 < Re < 4000) 𝑓=𝑅 0.25 ........................................................................... (6)
𝑒
5.74 2
Turbulent Flow (Re > 4000) 𝑓 = 0.25⁄[𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 0.9 )] ...................................................... (7)
𝑅𝑒

Objective
The objective is to study steady flow in a closed conduit and evaluate energy losses through a smooth
pipe system.

Apparatus
ElectronicaVeneta Fluid Friction Apparatus (Model HB21/EV)

Hydraulic Bench

Stopwatch

Figure 6-1

Procedure
1) Open Valve V7 to carry out the test on the pipe 20x1.5 OR V6 for the pipe 18x1.5 OR V5 for the

Page 22 of 29
 pipe 14x1.5 OR V4 for the pipe 10x1.5 OR V3 for the pipe 6x1
2) Select one pipe to test, measure its length, record its diameter and open the corresponding Valve
and record water temperature
3) Measure the head losses at different values of flow rate using the differential manometer, (Note, if
Mercury Manometer is used, the measured value is multiplied by Mercury S.G. minus Water S.G.),
4) Measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench,
5) Repeat steps 3 and 4 for at least additional five flow rates
6) Fill the data table for that pipe

Results
a) Calculate the area for the selected pipe (Note that pipe DD x tt has outer diameter equal DD mm
and wall thickness equal tt mm and its internal diameter equal DD – 2xtt),
b) Calculate the velocity for each flow rate,
c) Using the water temperature, find the kinematic viscosity 
d) Calculate the Reynolds number using equation (4) and then the friction factor from equation (5),
(6) or (7),
e) Using the calculated friction factor from step (d) above, and Darcy-Weisbach equation (equation
3), compute the theoretical head loss for each flow rate,
f) Plot the theoretical values of head losses to your measured head loss data obtained using the
differential manometer. Discuss your results.

Page 23 of 29
 Minor head losses due to fittings in pipes
Introduction
The losses of energy in conduits flowing full of a liquid usually result from the resistance of the
conduit walls to the flow, or from pipe fittings (e.g. elbows, contractions, valves) that cause the flow
velocity to be changed in magnitude and/or direction. These energy losses must be calculated so that,
for example, the proper size and number of pumps can be specified in the design of a municipal water
distribution system; the conduit size for a gravity-flow urban drainage project may be determined;
or the optimal size of valves and the radius of curvature of pipe elbows can be stipulated in the
specifications of a pipeline design.

The losses that result from pipe fittings are termed minor losses.
𝑉2
ℎ𝑚 = 𝑘𝑚 2𝑔 ......................................................................................................................................... (1)
where 𝑘𝑚 is the minor losses coefficient,.

Objective
The objective is to study steady flow in a closed conduit and evaluate energy losses pipe fittings.

Apparatus
ElectronicaVeneta Fluid Friction Apparatus (Model HB21/EV)

Hydraulic Bench

Stopwatch

Figure 6-1

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 Flow Measurements in Channels (Sharp-crested Weir)

A weir is a vertical obstruction placed in an open channel, normal to the mean flow, thus forcing the
flow over a crest designed to measure the flow rate. A well designed weir will exhibit subcritical flow
upstream, accelerating to critical flow at the crest. This experiment will consider one class of weirs,
known as sharp-crested weirs, which are smooth, vertical, flat plates with a sharpened upper edge.

Figure 9-1

Take Bernoulli between 1 and 2

𝑉12 2𝑉2
+ (𝐻 + 𝐷) = 2𝑔 + (𝐻 + 𝐷 − ℎ)
2𝑔

Assume the approaching velocity V1  0

𝑉22 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑉2 = √2𝑔ℎ
At any h,
𝜕𝑄 = 𝑉2 𝐿 𝜕ℎ = √2𝑔ℎ 𝐿 𝜕ℎ
Integrate for h between 0 and H:
𝐻 𝐻 2 𝐻
𝑄 = ∫0 √2𝑔ℎ 𝐿 𝜕ℎ = √2𝑔 𝐿 ∫0 √ℎ 𝜕ℎ = √2𝑔 𝐿 3 ℎ3/2 0
𝟐
𝑸 = 𝟑 √𝟐𝒈 𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

This is the theoretical equation to find the discharge over sharp crested weirs where: H is the water
depth upstream above the weir crest, L is the weir width.

Unfortunately, this equation doesn’t work well particularly when applied to natural flow situations. A
discharge coefficient, Cd is introduced:

𝟐
𝑸 = 𝟑 𝑪𝒅 √𝟐𝒈 𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

A general form of weirs equation is:

𝑸 = 𝑪 𝑳 𝑯𝒏

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𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑸) = 𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑯) + 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝑪 𝑳)

Where C is an overall coefficient of discharge, which is not necessarily equal to 𝟐⁄𝟑 √𝟐𝒈 but rather is
a function of the geometry of the weir, and n is also a function of weir geometry.
For weirs constructed to standard specifications, the values of C and n are constants for each weir
design,

For rectangular sharp crested weir,

C = 1.84 and
n = 1.5

Objective
Develop weir calibration curves and determine the C, n and Cd values for rectangular sharp crested
weir.

Apparatus
1) Reservoir-Channel apparatus with flow rate meter
2) Hook gage,
3) Sharp crested weir

Procedure
1) Check the reservoir water level. Open the drain in the tank basin.
2) Measure the upstream channel cross-section width
3) Install the weir in the channel.
4) Position the hook gage next to the weir plate and zero the scale at the channel bottom.
5) Measure L or weir plates and measure the weir’s crest height (D) from the channel bottom.
6) Turn on the pump and open the flow control valve to the maximum flow rate
7) Measure the water depth (y) behind the weir using the hook gage and record the flow rate (Q)
from the flow rate meter,
8) Partially close the flow control valve and measure water depth (y) behind the weir and record the
flow rate (Q),
9) Repeat (8) for 5 different values of flow rates
10) For each trail, calculate the water depth above weir crest (H) by subtracting the weir’s height
(D) from the measured water depth behind the weir (y)

Results:
1) Plot ln(Q) vs. ln(H) or plot log(Q) vs. log(H) on normal-normal scale
2) Find the slope and intersect of the best-fit line of the plot,
3) Find n value from the slope and C value from the intersect,
4) Compare your results with the theoretical values mentioned above for n and C
5) Calculate the discharge coefficient, Cd

Page 26 of 29
 Centrifugal Pumps Experiment

Objective
To create head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump.

Theory:
For pumps, the efficiency is calculated as:
𝑃𝑜
𝑒= × 100%
𝑃𝑖
Where:
e is the efficiency
Po is the hydropower in (Watt) = 𝛾𝑤 𝑄 𝐻
Pi is the impeller (pump) power in (Watt)
Q is the discharge in (m3/s)
H is the pump head in (m)
𝑃𝑜 𝛾𝑤 𝑄 𝐻
⟹ 𝑃𝑖 = × 100% = × 100%
𝑒 𝑒

If we have the Q vs H characteristic curve for a pump that operates at Nr1 rotational speed, we can
build the Q vs H characteristic curve for the same pump if operates at other rotational speed Nr2 using
the following relations

𝑄2 𝑁𝑟2 𝑁𝑟2
= ⟹ 𝑄2 = 𝑄
𝑄1 𝑁𝑟1 𝑁𝑟1 1
𝐻2 𝑁𝑟2 2 𝑁𝑟2 2
= ( ) ⟹ 𝐻2 = ( ) 𝐻1
𝐻1 𝑁𝑟1 𝑁𝑟1
Where:
Nr1 and Nr2 are rotational speed in (rpm)
Q1 and Q2 are discharge in (m3/s)
H1 and H2 are pump head in (m)

Apparatus:
The apparatus is edibon PBSPC Computer Controlled Series/Parallel Pumps. It consists of a tank and
pipework which delivers water to and from a small two centrifugal pumps. The unit is fitted with
electronic sensors which control and measure the process variables. Signals from these sensors are
sent to a computer via an interface device,

Page 27 of 29
Figure 10-1

Figure 10-2

Page 28 of 29
Equipment Setup
1. Fill the reservoir to within 15cm of the top rim. Ensure the inlet valve and outlet valve are both
fully open.
2. Ensure the equipment is connected to the interface device and this device is switched on and
connected to the PC
3. Run the PSBPC software.

Procedure
1. Switch on the interface device and Run the PSBPC software.
2. Make sure that the valves are open or closed as needed for the experiment setup
3. Select the speed of the main pump as 3000 rpm,
4. Start with the outlet valve fully open,
5. Change the discharge using the outlet valve and record readings of discharge, head and efficiency,
6. Repeat the experiment for single pump, 2 pumps in series and 2 pumps in parallel where the main
pump speed is 3000 rpm
7. Repeat the experiment for single pump with rotational speed other than 3000 rpm

Results
1. For single pump at 3000 rpm speed, calculate the impeller power and plot the discharge with,
Head, efficiency and Power
2. Plot Discharge with Head for single, 2 pumps in series and 2 pumps in parallel on the same graph,
3. Use the discharge and head graph for the single pump at 3000 rpm to calculate that for single pump
with speed other than 3000 rpm and plot it in the same graph with the measured one.
4. Discuss your results

Page 29 of 29