Solutions

(I) Definition of Solution- It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

(II) Components of solution
(i)Solute- It is that component of solution which constitutes small part of solution.
(ii)Solvent- It is that component of solution which constitutes large part of solution.
(III) Types of Solution
(A)On basis of components
1. Binary solution- Solution containing two components.
2. Ternary solution- Solution containing three components.
3. Quaternary solution- Solution containing four components.
(B)On basis of solvent
1. Aqueous solution- Solution in which solvent is water.
2. Non aqueous solution- Solution in which solvent is other than water.
(C) On basis of physical state of solute and solvent
Solute Solvent Solution Example
Solid Solid Solid in solid Metal alloys such as brass,
bronze.
Liquid Solid Liquid in solid Amalgams of Hg with metals
such as Hg in silver
Gas Solid Gas in solid H2 in palladium
Solid Liquid Solid in liquid Sugar in water
Liquid Liquid Liquid in liquid Ethanol in water
Gas Liquid Gas in liquid CO2 in water
Solid Gas Solid in gas Camphor in air
Liquid Gas Liquid in gas Chloroform in nitrogen
Gas Gas Gas in gas Air
(D)On basis of Capacity of Solution to dissolve solute
1. Unsaturated solution- Solution in which more solute can be dissolved at same
temperature and pressure.
2. Saturated solution - Solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at same
temperature and pressure.
3. Supersaturated solution- Solution which contain excess of solute than required for
formation of saturated solution.
(IV) Solubility- It is the amount of solute per unit volume of saturated solution at a specific
temperature.
Solubility of solute is its maximum concentration and unit is mol/L or M.
(V) Factors affecting the solubility
(A) Solid in liquid-
a. Nature of solid and solvent- Solid dissolves in that liquid which is chemically similar to it, i.e
“like dissolves like”. It means polar solute dissolves in polar solvents & non-polar solute
dissolves in non- polar solvents. Ex- Naphthalene in benzene.
b. Temperature- If the dissolution process is endothermic, the solubility should increase with
increase in [Link]- Solubility of KCl increases with increase in temperature.
If the dissolution process is exothermic, the solubility should decrease with increase in
[Link]- Solubility of Na2SO4 decreases with increase in temperature.

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 • Solubility changes slightly with temperature-NaCl, KCl, NaBr
• Solubility increases appreciably with increase in temperature-NaNO3, KNO3, KBr
• Solubility decreases with increase in temperature-Na2SO4
c. Pressure-Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solid in liquid because
solids are highly incompressible & remain unaffected by change in pressure.
(B) Gas in liquid-
a. Nature of gas and solvent- Gas dissolves in that liquid which is chemically similar to it, i.e
“like dissolveslike”.Ex-oxygen molecules are non-polar in nature, therefore less soluble in
polar solvents while HCl is polar in nature, therefore more soluble in polar solvent like water.
b. Temperature- Solubility of gas decreases with increase in temperature.
[According to Charle’s law- volume of gas increase with increase in temperature. Therefore,
volume of dissolved gas in solution also increases with increase in temperature, so that is
becomes imposssible for the solvent in solution to accomodate gaseous solute in it & gas
bubbles out]
[When gases are dissolved in water, the gas molecules in liquid phase are condensed. Thus
condensation is an exothermic process. Thus, solubility of gases in water decreases with
increase in temperature]
Question: Explain why do aquatic animals prefer to stay at lower level of water during
summer.
c. Pressure-Solubilty of gas increases with increase in pressure.
Henry’sLaw states that“ the solubility of gas in liquid at constant temperature is
directly proportional to pressure of gas over the solution”
S is directly proportional to P
S=KHP(S is solubility of gas in mol/L or M, P is pressure of gas in bar, KH is Henry’s
-1
Law constant in molL-1bar
If P= 1 bar then S=KH. Henry’s Law constant is the solubility of gas in liquid when its
pressure over the solution is 1 bar.
(VI) Colligative properties- These are the properties of solution which depend on the number of
solute particles in solutions and not in their nature. There are four colligative properties
(a) Lowering of vapour pressure (b) Elevation of boiling point
(c) Depression of freezing point (d) Osmotic pressure
(A) Lowering of vapour pressure
(i) Definition of vapour pressure– It is the pressure exerted by vapours on the surface of liquid when
liquid and vapours are in equilibrium.
(ii) Meaning of Lowering of Vapour pressure-The vapour pressure of solution containing non
volatile solute is lower than that of pure solvent. It is because in case of pure solvent, its surface
area is completely occupied by volatile solvent molecules. While in case of solution of non-
volatile solute, its surface area is not completely occupied by volatile solvent but partly
occupied by nonvolatile solute. As a result solvent molecules at surface of solution vapourise at
slower rate than pure solvent.
(iii) Expression of Lowering of Vapour pressure and Relative lowering of vapour pressure-
Vapour pressure of pure solvent- P1ο, Vapour pressure of solution- P
Loweing of vapour pressure ( P) = P1ο- P
Relative lowering of vapour pressure ( = (P1ο- P)/P1ο
(iv) Raoult’s Law- It states that partial vapour pressure of any volatile component of solution is the
product of vapour pressure of that pure component and mole fraction of the component in the
solution.
ο
(v) Using Raoult’s Law show that ( P = P1 X2) or Prove that lowering of vapour pressure is a
colligative property-
(vi) Derive the relationship between relative lowering of vapour pressure and molar mass of
solute (pg-35 from text book)

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(B) Elevation of Boiling point
(i) Definition of Boiling point- Temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Graphical Representation of Elevation of Boiling point-
(iii) How lowering of VP is related to elevation in BP or explain with diagram the BP elevation in
terms of VP lowering-
(iv) Why BP of solution is higher than BP of pure solvent or Why BP of solvent is increased by
dissolving a non volatile solute into it-
At any given temperature the VP of solution is lower than that of pure solvent. Hence VP of
solution needs higher temperature to reach 1 atm than that needed for VP of solvent i.e solution
must be heated to higher temperature to cause it to boil than the pure solvent.
(v) Expression of Elevation of BP
BP of pure solvent- Tbο, BP of solution- Tb
Elevation of BP ( Tb) = Tb- Tbο
(vi) Relationship between elevation of BP ( Tb) & concentration of solute (m)
Tb is directly proportional to m (thermodynamically proved and experimentally confirmed)
Tb =Kb x m (here m is molality of solution and Kb is BP elevation constant/molal elevation
constant/ebullioscopic constant)
Definition and unit of Kb- It is defined as boiling point elevation produced by 1 molal solution.
unit- K Kg mol-1.
(vii) Derive Relationship between elevation of BP ( Tb) & molar mass of solute (M2)(pg-36 from
text book)
(C) Depression of Freezing point
(i) Definition of Freezing point- It is the temperature at which liquid and solid state of a substance
have same vapour pressure.
(ii) Graphical Representation of Depression of freezing point-
(iii) How lowering of VP is related to depression in FP or explain with diagram the FP depression in
terms of VP lowering-
(iv) Why FP of solution is lower than FP of pure solvent
At the FP of pure liquid the attractive forces among molecules are large enough to cause the
change of phase from liquid to solid. In a solution, solvent molecules are separated from each
other because of solute molecules. This result in decreasing the attractive forces between solvent
molecules. Consequently, temperature of solution is lowered below FP of solvent to cause phase
change.
(v) Expression of Depression of FP
FP of pure solvent- Tfο, FP of solution- Tf
Depression of FP ( Tf) = Tfο- Tf
(vi) Relationship between elevation of FP ( Tf) & concentration of solute (m)
Tf is directly proportional to m (thermodynamically proved and experimentally confirmed)
Tf =Kf x m (here m is molality of solution and Kf is FP depression constant/molal depression
constant/cryoscopic constant)
Definition and unit of Kf- It is defined as freezing point depression produced by 1 molal
solution.
unit- K Kg mol-1.
(vii) Derive Relationship between depression of FP ( Tf) & molar mass of solute (M2)
pg-38 from text book)
(D) Osmotic pressure
(i) Semi permeable membrane- A membrane which allows only solvent molecules to pass
through it but does not allow the solute molecules is known as semipermeable membrane.
Examples- animal bladder, cellulose, cellulose nitrate and copper ferrocyanide Cu2[Fe(CN)6]

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 (ii) Osmosis- The net spontaneous flow of solvent molecules into the solution or from less
concentrated solution to more concentrated solution through a semi permeable membrane is
called osmosis.
(iii) Osmotic pressure- The excess hydrostatic pressure that builds up when the solution is
separated from solvent by a semi permeable membrane which stops osmosis is called an
osmotic pressure.
(iv) Different types of solution on basis of osmotic pressure-
(a) Isotonic solution- Two or more solution having same OP.
Example- 0.05M urea solution & 0.05M sucrose solution are isotonic.
(b) Hypertonic solution- A solution having OP higher than that of another solution.
Example- 0.1M urea solution is hypertonic to 0.05M sucrose.
(c) Hypotonic solution - A solution having OP lower than that of another solution.
Example- 0.05M Sucrose solution is hypotonic with 0.1M urea solution.
(v) Expression of osmotic pressure-
For a very dilute solution, OP follows the equation: π= (n2/V)RT
Where n2 is number of moles of non volatile solute, V2 is volume of solution in L or dm3, R
is gas constant and π is OP, T is temperature.
The term n2/V= concentration (C) can be written in terms of molarity(M)
π= CRT or π= MRT
(vi) Derive relationship between osmotic pressure (OP) and molar mass of solute (M2)
pg-40 from text book)
(vii) Reverse osmosis- If the pressure applied on the solution is greater than the OP then solvent
starts passing from solution into solvent. It is used for purification of sea water.

Q-1 While considering BP elevation and FP depression a solution concentration is expressed in molality
and not in molarity. Why?
Q-2 Why solute concentration is expressed in molarity while calculating OP rather than molality?
Q-3 Which of the four CP is most often used for molecular mass determination .Why?

(VII) (A) Expression of VP of solutions of two volatile liquids using Raoult’s Law-
P= (P2º -P1º) X2 +P1º
(B)Relationship between Raoult’s law and Dalton’s law-
 According to Raoult’s law, partial VP of two components Aand B can be expressed as
P1= P1ºX1 and P2= P2ºX2 (X1 & X2 are mole fraction of components in solution
 According to Dalton’s law, partial VP of two components Aand B can be expressed
as, P1= PY1 and P2= PY2 (Y1 & Y2 are mole fraction of components in vapour phase
P1ºX1= PY1 ; Y1=( P1ºX1)/P
P2ºX2= PY2 ; Y2=( P2ºX2)/P
(C)Ideal and Non ideal solutions
Ideal Solutions Non ideal solutions
They obey Raoult’s law over entire range of They do not obey Raoult’s law over entire range
concentration and temperature. of concentration and temperature.
Solute-solute and Solvent-solvent interaction is Solute-solute and Solvent-solvent interaction is
similar to solute-solvent interaction different to solute-solvent interaction
VP of solution lies between VP of pure VP of solution can be higher or lower than VP of
components. pure components.
Vmix=0 Vmix≠0
Hmix=0 Hmix≠0
Examples- Hexane and heptanes, benzene and Examples- ethanol and acetone, chloroform and
toluene, chlorobenzene and bromobenzene. acetone.

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 (E) Non ideal solutions showing positive and negative deviation from Raoult’s law
Solution with positive deviation from Raoult’s law Solution with negative deviation from Raoult’s law
Solute-solute and Solvent-solvent interaction > Solute-solute and Solvent-solvent interaction <
solute-solvent interaction solute-solvent interaction
VP of solution is higher than those of VP of pure VP of solution is lower than those of VP of pure
components components
Vmix >0 Vmix < 0
Hmix >0 Hmix <0
Examples- ethanol & cyclohexane, ethanol & Examples- CHCl3+ acetone, phenol +aniline,
acetone, CS2 & acetone, H2O +C2H5OH, H2O+HCl, H2O+HNO3
H2O+CH3OH

(VIII) Van’t Hoff factor(i)

(i) Definition of van’t hoff factor- It is defined as the ratio of colligative property of a solution of electrolyte
divided by colligative property of non electrolyte solution of same concentration.
(ii)formulae
 i=(ΔPelectrolyte/ ΔPnonelectrolyte)
 i=(ΔTb electrolyte/ ΔTb nonelectrolyte)
 i=(ΔTf electrolyte/ ΔTf nonelectrolyte)
 i=(πelectrolyte/ π nonelectrolyte)
 i=(actual moles of particles in solution after dissocaiation / moles of formula units dissolved in solution )
 i=(Molar mass theoretical/ Molar mass observed)
(iii)Relation between van’t hoff factor and degree of dissociation
 Degree of dissociation (α) =(i-1)/(n-1)
 Derive the relation between van’t hoff factor and degree of dissociation (pg-43from text book)

Type1-Numericals (Based on Henry’sLaw)

1. The solubility of N2 gas in water at 25οC and 1 bar is 6.85 x 10-4 mol/L. Calculate (a) Henry’s law constant
(b) Molarity of N2 gas dissolved in water under atmospheric condition when partial pressure of N2 in
atmosphere is 0.75 bar.
2. Henry’s Law constant of methyl bromide (CH3Br) is 0.159 molL-1 bar-1 at 25οC. What is the solubility of
CH3Br in water at 25οC and at pressure of 130 mm Hg.
Type2-Numericals (Based on Lowering of Vapour pressure)
1. Calculate the weight of a non volatile solute (molar mass=40g/mol) which should be dissolved in 114g
octane (Mwt = 114). Vapour pressure of pure octane = 100 mm Hg & Vapour pressure of solution = 80
mm Hg.
2. The vapour pressure of pure benzene (molar mass = 78 g/mol) at a certain temperature is 640 mm Hg. A
non volatile solute of mass 2.315 g is added to 40 g of benzene. The vapour pressure of the solution is
600mmHg. What is the molar mass of the solute.
3. The vapour pressure of pure benzene (molar mass = 78 g/mol) at a certain temperature is 640 mm Hg. A
non volatile solute of mass 2.175 g is added to 39 g of benzene. The vapour pressure of the solution is
600mmHg. What is the molar mass of the solute.
4. A solution is prepared by dissolving 394 g of a non volatile solute in 622 g of water. Vapour pressure of
solution is found to be 30.74 mm Hg at 30οC. If vapour pressure of water at 30οC is 31.8 mm Hg. What
is the molar mass of solute.
5. The vapour pressure of water at 20ºC is 17 mmHg. The vapour pressure of solution containing 2.8 g urea
(molar mass =60 g/mol) in 50 g of water.
Type3-Numericals(Based on Elevation in Boiling point)
1. 0.15 molal solution of a substance boils at [Link] molal elevation constant of water. Given
boiling point of water= 373.15 K.
2. Calculate molality of solution of a substance which on dissolving in benzene boils at 353.71K.
Kb for benzene=2.53KKg/mol and bolinig point of pure benzene is 353.35K.

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3. 90 g of glucose is dissolve in 500 g of water. Calculate elevation in boiling point and boiling point
of solution. Kb for water=0.53KKg/mol.
4. A solution is prepared by dissolving 19 g ammonia in 400 g of water. Calculate elevation in
Boiling point & boiling point of solution. Kb for water=0.52KKg/mol.(N=14,H=1,O=16)
5. The normal BP of ethyl acetate is 77.06ºC. A solution of 50 g of non volatile solute in 150 g of ethyl
acetate boils at 84.27ºC. Evaluate molar mass of solute if Kb for ethyl acetate=2.77KKg/mol
6. 3.795 g of sulphur is dissolved in 100 g of CS2. This solution boils at 319.8K. What is the molecular
formula of sulphur in solution. The BP of solvent= 319.45K . Kb for CS2 = 2.42K kgmol-1.
7. A solution containing 0.73 g of camphor (molar mass =152g/mol) in 36.8 g of acetone (boiling point
56.3ᵒC) boils at 56.55ᵒC. A solution of 0.564 g of unknown compound in the same weight of acetone boils
at 56.46ᵒC. Calculate the molar mass of the unknown compound.
Type4-Numericals(Based on Depression in freezingpoint)
1. The observed depression in the freezing point of water for a particular solution is [Link] the
molality of the solution if molal depression constant for water is 1.86 K Kg/mol.
2. Calculate the depression in freezing point and freezing point of solution prepared by dissolving 4.5 g of
glucose(molar mass=180g/mol) in 250 g of bromoform. Given freezing point of bromoform=7.8ᵒC
and Kf for bromoform= 14.4 KKg/mol.
3. Calculate the depression in freezing point and freezing point of solution prepared by dissolving 342g of
cane sugar (molar mass = 342 g/mol) in 1000 g of water. Kf for water = 1.86 K Kg/mol.
4. The FP of pure benzene is 278.4K. Calculate the freezing point of solution when 2 g of solute having
molecular weight 100 g/mol is added to 100 g of benzene [Kf of benzene = 5.12 KKg/mol]
5. 6 g of substance A dissolved in 100 g of water freezes at -0.93ᵒ[Link] the molar mass of A if
Kf =1.86KKg/mol.
6. 1.02 g of urea dissolved in 98.5 g of certain solvent decreases its freezing point by 0.211K. 1.609 g of
unknown compound when dissolved in 86 g of same solvent depresses the FP by 0.34K. Calculate molar
mass of unknown compound.
Type5-Numericals (Based on Osmotic pressure)
1. Calculate osmotic pressure of 4.5 g of glucose (molar mass =180g/mol) dissolved in 100 ml of water at
298K (R =0.0821 L atm mol-1K-1)
2. Calculate osmotic pressure of 3.42 g of sucrose (molar mass =342 g/mol) per litre at 400K (R =0.0821 L
atm mol-1K-1)
3. What is the molar mass of solute if a solution prepared by dissolving 0.822g of it in 300 mdm3 of water has
an OP =149 mm Hg at 298K.
4. OP of a solution containing 6.8 x 10-3 Kg of protein per 10-4 m3 of solution is 6.8 x 103 Pa at 27 ºC. Calculate
molar mass of protein. (R =8.314 JK-1 mol-1)
5. An organic compound (M= 169 g/mol) is dissolved in 2000 cm3 of water. Its OP at 12ºC was found to be
0.54 atm. If R = 0.0821 L atm mol-1K-1. Calculate mass of solute.
Type6-Numericals (Based on Raoult’s Law)
1. VP of pure liquids A & B are 450 mm Hg & 700 mm Hg at 350K. Find the composition of liquid & vapour
if total pressure is 600 mm.
2. VP of pure liquids A & B are 400 mm Hg & 600 mm Hg at 298K. The mole fraction of liquid B is 0.5 in
the mixture. Calculate VP of final solution, mole fraction of components A & B in vapour phase.
Type7-Numericals (Based on Van’t Hoff factor)
1. Assuming complete dissociation , calculate the molality of aqueous solution of KBr whose freezing point
is -2.95 ºC. Kf for water = 1.86 K Kg/mol.
2. 3.4 g of CaCl2 is dissolved in 2.5 L of water at 300 K. What is the osmotic pressure of the solution? Van’t
Hoff factor for CaCl2 is 2.46.
3. 0.01 m aqueous formic acid solution freezes at -0.021ºC. Calculate its degree of dissociation. Kf for water
= 1.86 K Kg/mol.
4. 0.2 m aqueous solution of KCl freezes at -0.680ºC . Calculate van’t Hoff factor and osmotic pressure of the
solution at 0 ºC. Kf for water = 1.86 K Kg/mol

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