Resistor

Passive two terminal device which limits or regulates the flow of electrical
current.
Resistance is a dissipative element which converts electrical energy to heat,
when current flows through it in any direction. The units of resistance are
Ohms (Ω).
The resistance of a conductor will be 1Ω when it allows 1 A current to
flow through it on application of 1 V across its material.
The resistance of conducting material is found to …
(1) be directly proportional to the length of the material,
(2) be inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the material.
(3) depend on the nature of material.
(4) depend upon the temperature.

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Therefore,
R∝l
R ∝ 1/a
or, R = ρl/a
Where,
R=resistance in Ω
l=length in m
a =cross section area in m²
ρ= resistivity in Ω-m

We remember that resistance has units of ohms. The reciprocal of resistance is

conductance(G). G=1/R
At one time, conductance commonly had units of mho (resistance spelled
backwards). In recent years the units of conductance has been established as
Siemens (S).
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 Resistance Color Coding

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A resistor colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold would be 47 kΩ with a tolerance of +/-
5%.

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3 kΩ with a

tolerance of +/- 0.1%.
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 47 × 10°=47000= 47k +_ 5% ohm

470 × 10°=47000= 470k +_ 5% ohm

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 Effect of temperature on Resistance
 Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.
 For good conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an increase in
the resistance level. Consequently, conductors have positive temperature
coefficients.
 In alloys like magnesium and eureka,
resistance increase is relatively small
with increase in temperature.
 For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature will result in a
decrease in the resistance level.
Consequently, semiconductors have
negative temperature coefficients.

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 Temperature Effect on Resistance
• The difference in resistance while increasing temperature from 0 °C to
1 °C is called temperature coefficient of resistance.

Let us consider a conductor which has resistivity ρ0 at 0˚C and ρt at t˚C.

It has been found experimentally that for normal range of
temperatures.
1. Increase in resistivity is directly proportional to initial resistivity.
i.e. (ρt − ρ0 )𝛼ρ0 …………….i
2. Increase in resistivity is directly proportional to rise in temperature.
i.e. (ρt − ρ0 )𝛼∆𝑡…………ii
Temperature Effect on Resistance contd
• From i and ii
(𝜌𝑡 −𝜌0 ) 𝛼 𝜌0 ∆𝑡
𝑜𝑟, (𝜌𝑡 −𝜌0 ) 𝛼 𝜌0 (𝑡 − 0)

∴ 𝜌𝑡 − 𝜌0 = 𝛼0 𝜌0 𝑡

• Where, 𝛼0 is proportionality constant and is known as temperature

coefficient of resistance at 0˚C whose value depends upon nature of
materials and temperature.
Temperature Effect on Resistance contd
Then,
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 = 𝛼0 𝑅0 𝑡
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
∴ 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 = 𝛼0 𝑅0 𝑡
This can be written as
𝑅𝑡 −𝑅0
𝛼0 =
𝑅0 𝑡
Hence, temperature coefficient of resistance may be defined as the change
in resistance per degree change in temperature expressed as a fraction of
original resistance (resistance at reference temperature considered).
The SI unit of temperature coefficient of resistance is /˚C (per degree
Celsius).
Temperature Effect on Resistance contd
• For two different temperatures t1 ˚C and t2˚C, we have

R 2 = R1 [1 + α1 t 2 − t1 ]

• If α1 is temperature coefficient at t1 ˚C then temperature coefficient at

t2˚C can be calculated as
1 α1
α2 = =
1
+ (t 2 −t1 ) 1 + α1 (t 2 − t1 )
α1
 Ohm’s Law:
Ohm's law states that “ The current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points provided that
the temperature and other physical parameters remain the same.”
𝐼𝛼𝑉

𝑉
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑅, 𝑎 constant
𝐼
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Where: I = current (amperes, A) Figure:Simple circuit diagram for Ohm's law

V = voltage (volts, V)
R = proportionality constant known as resistance of
conductor and is measured in Ohm (Ω).resistance
(ohms, )
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Ohms Law contd
• From the V-I graph shown in, a straight
line passing through origin is obtained.
• It is clear that for each and every
increasing values of current,
there is linear rise in potential difference
across the two ends of conductor that
gives resistance as the slope of the line.
Figure: Voltage versus current graph for Ohm's law

• Higher the slope, the higher will be the resistance.

Ohmic and Non-ohmic Conductors
• The conductor which exactly satisfy the Ohm’s law i.e. voltage and
current relationship is linear is called ohmic conductor. For example,
metals, etc.
• The conductor which does not exactly
satisfy the Ohm’s law i.e. voltage and current
relationship is non-linear is called non-ohmic
conductor.
For example, diodes, transistors, insulators, etc.

Figure: I vs V graph plot for ohmic

and non-ohmic conductors
Assignment
1. Application of Ohms Law
2. Limitations of Ohms Law
Power and Energy
When a potential difference ‘V’ volts is applied across the circuit, a
current ‘I’ ampere flows through it for a particular period ‘t’ seconds.
The voltage applied across the circuit is equal to the ratio of the work
done by the electrical charge to the number of electrical charges ‘Q’
present in the circuit which is expressed below:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑉=
𝑄
This work done is, infact, appeared as electrical energy in the circuit, so
electrical energy is given as
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 … . (𝑖) (∵ 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡)
Power and Energy contd……
If we consider a linear load of resistance ‘R’ connected to a source of
emf ‘V’ volts i.e. potential difference of ‘V’ appears across load ‘R’. So
the electrical energy consumption by this load is represented above in
equation (i).
For linear load, from Ohm’s law, we have,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
So equation (i) becomes
2
2
𝑉 𝑡
𝐸 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑡 =
𝑅
Power and Energy contd…..
We know the rate of doing work is power. So, the rate of consumption
of electrical energy to perform some specified work is called an electric
power. Mathematically,
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃= = 𝑉𝐼
𝑡
As 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 2
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑅
Source Transformation
1. Practical Voltage Source to Practical Current Source
• Replace a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with the SAME resistor R.

𝐸 𝐸
• 𝐼𝐿 = Here, 𝐼 =
𝑟+𝑅𝐿 𝑟
Source Transformation
2. Practical Current Source to Practical Voltage Source
• Replace a current source is in parallel with a resistor R by a voltage
source vs in series with the SAME resistor R.

𝐼𝑟
• 𝐼𝐿 = Here, V = Ir
𝑟+𝑅𝐿
Series and Parallel Circuit
1. Series Circuit
• When all the resistors in DC circuit are connected end to end so that
they form a single path for flow of current, then the resistors are said
to be in series and the circuit is referred as series DC circuit.

Figure : Series Connection of ‘n’ resistors

Series Circuit contd
• The figure shows 'n' number of resistors R1, R2, R3,….., Rn connected in
series.
• Let ‘I’ be the same amount of current flowing through all resistors and
‘V’ be the total potential difference across the resistors.
• V1 =I R1 is the voltage drop across R1
• V2 =I R2 is the voltage drop across R2
• V3=I R3 is the voltage drop across R3
• Vn=I Rn is the voltage drop across Rn
• So, the sum of all the individual potential difference across
R1 , R 2 , R 3 , … and R n is given by
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
Series Circuit contd
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑅𝑛
or,𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 )

If whole of the resistors are replaced by single resistor having equivalent resistance R eq , then from ohm’s law, we
can write

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞

So

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛
Voltage Divider Rule
• Let us consider only two resistors R1 and R2 in series as shown in
Figure and now we are going to calculate potential difference across
both resistors.
• We know that,
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 and
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2
• If we replace both these series resistors by
their equivalent resistance Req, from Ohm’s law,
we can write
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Voltage Divider Rule
Substituting value of current I we get
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅1
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
2. Parallel Circuit
• When number of resistors in DC circuit are connected in such a way
that one end of each of them is connected to a common node and
the other end being connected to another common node so that
same potential difference exists between the ends of each resistor,
then the resistors are said to be in parallel and the circuit is referred
as parallel DC circuit.

Figure : Parallel Connection of ‘n’ resistors

Parallel Circuit
• The Figure shows 'n' number of resistors R1, R2, R3,..., Rn connected in
parallel.
• The amount of current flowing through each of them is different,
depending upon their resistances.
• Let ‘I’ be the main current flowing through the circuit and is divided
into I1, I2, I3,…, In and ‘V’ be the potential difference across each
resistor. We have,
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 ……………….i
Parallel Circuit
• If whole of the resistors are replaced by single resistor having equivalent resistance R eq , then from ohm’s law, we can write

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 ………………..ii

Then from i and ii we can write

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
∴ = + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

1
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛
1
෍
𝑖=1 𝑅𝑖
Current Division Rule
• Let us consider only two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel as shown in Figure and now we are going to calculate
current flowing through each resistor.
• We know that,
𝑉
𝐼1 = and
𝑅1

𝑉
𝐼2 =
𝑅2
• If we replace both these parallel resistors by their
equivalent resistance Req, from Ohm’s law,
we can write
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝐼𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Current Division Rule
• Substituting value of V we get
𝐼𝑅1 𝑅2 1 𝑅2
𝐼1 = × = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝐼𝑅1 𝑅2 1 𝑅1
𝐼2 = × = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2