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GETHICS

MODULE IN
ETHICS

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GETHICS

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should be able
to:

1. discuss the importance of ethics for Filipinos

in the present time;

2. discern the difference between moral and

non-moral problem-situation;

3. describe what a moral experience is at it

happens in different levels of human existence;

4. express understanding of the importance of

philosophizing and addressing ethical issues in
consideration of the socio-cultural contexts of
Filipinos;

5. describe the elements of moral

development and moral experience;

6. use ethical frameworks or principles to

analyze moral experiences;

ETHICS 7. make sound ethical judgments based on

principles, facts and stakeholders affected;

8. demonstrate actions showing sensitivity for

the common good, as guided by the spirit of
genuine services with a Louisian-CICM
missionary heart; and

9. exhibit a life that integrates principles of

ethical behavior in the modern, multi-cultural,
and globalized world at the level of the
person, society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources.
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"The standard that a society should actually embody its own professed principles is a utopian
one, in the sense that moral principles contradict the way things really are --- and always will
be. How things really are --- and always will be --- is neither all-evil nor all-good but deficient,
inconsistent, inferior. Principles invite us to do something about the morass of contradictions in
which we function morally. Principles invite us to clean up our act; to become intolerant of
moral laxity and compromise and cowardice and the turning away from what is upsetting: that
secret gnawing of the heart that tells us that what we are doing is not right, and so counsels us
that we'd be better off just not thinking about it."

Susan Sontag

COURSE INTRODUCTION
Ethics deals with the principles of reasonable behavior in modern society at the level
of the person, society, and the interaction with the environment and other shared
resources (CMO 20 s 2013). Morality pertains to the standard of right and wrong actions
that an individual originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the
contextualized principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the
individual, society, and the interaction with the environment and other shared resources.
The course also teaches the students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral
frameworks and by applying several steps in reasoning to analyze and solve moral
dilemmas. The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of the moral
experience: a) the agent, including context – cultural, communal, and environmental; b)
the act, and c) reason or framework for the act. It also includes the mandatory topic on
taxation.

A vision of the university is dedicated to the development of virtuous human

resources and innovation for inclusive growth. The mission is to develop globally
competitive professionals and industry-ready graduates via various modalities and
generate new knowledge and technologies to the improvement of the quality of life. The
goal is to provide quality instruction in the arts and sciences and develop well-rounded
professionals who can: think critically, scientifically, and independently; 2) preserve cultural
heritage; become active agents of change; exemplify disciplined and moral lives;
appreciate and cultivate the arts; and, help improve the quality of life. With the program
outcomes-based specialization, all graduates can: 1) critique or appraise the different
theories in society, politics, and ethics; 2) adapt to the varied responses of people that
meet with differing views on society, politics, and ethics; 3) respond proactively to the
challenges of post-modernity to their society, political situations, and ethical leanings.

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MODULE 1: Overview and Brief Introduction to Philosophy

This module will serve as an Introduction to Philosophy for students who never had an
encounter with philosophy before, or serves as a re-view of what philosophy is, for those
who have either only a faint memory of it or whose memory is starting to fade.

The aim of this module is to:

(1) define what is philosophy;
(2) describe the nature of philosophy;
(3) determine the different branches of philosophy; and
(4) point out the importance of philosophizing.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of Module 1, you should be able to:
1. differentiate the main concerns of the different branches of Philosophy;
2. elaborate on the basic themes and perennial questions dealt with in philosophy;
and
3. articulate what it really means to “love wisdom.”

ENGAGE

Several people who either do not have an idea or only have faint idea of what philosophy
is, think that we cannot have a sensible conversation with a philosopher because they
think and speak of things “outside the box.” Being a “pilosopo” in our Filipino context has
earned a pejorative meaning and so such people are not treated seriously in the sense of
simply becoming a laughing stock. Before proceeding to the formal discussion on the basic
themes and branches of philosophy, and who “indeed” is a philosopher, share your initial
impressions regarding what philosophy is and your attitude towards people who are
called, “pilosopo.”

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EXPLORE

 1. Understanding Philosophy

Etymologically, the term “Philosophy” is derived from two Greek words; namely,
‘philos’ and ‘sophia which means love and wisdom, respectively. Literally, philosophy
means the “Love of Wisdom,” and so ‘philosophers’ are considered to be” lovers of
wisdom.”

Philosophy, as a course, is quite different from other academic subjects. No brief

definition can express the richness and variety of philosophy. It is unique both in its methods
and in the nature and breadth of its subject matter. Philosophy delves into the questions
concerning every dimension of human affairs. Its techniques can be applied to problems
in any field of study or endeavor. There are various desirable descriptions of Philosophy: a)
Philosophy is a search for meaning or a quest for understanding; b) Philosophy is a
reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths; c) Philosophy is a study of principles of conduct;
d) Philosophy seeks to establish standards of evidence to provide rational methods of
resolving conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments; e)
Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other
individuals and other cultures; f) Philosophy enhances one's ability to perceive the
relationships among the various fields of study; and, g) Philosophy deepens one's sense of
meaning and variety of human experience.

Every aspect of human experience brings out questions to which its techniques and
theories apply, and its methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of
any vocation. Indeed, Philosophy is in a sense inescapable since life confronts every
thoughtful person with some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by
philosophical assumptions. To a large extent one can choose how reflective one will be in
clarifying and developing one's philosophical assumptions, and how well prepared one is
for the philosophical questions life presents. Philosophical training enhances our problem-
solving capacities, our abilities to understand and express ideas, and our persuasive
powers. It also develops understanding and enjoyment of things whose absence
impoverishes many lives such things as aesthetic experience, communication with many
different kinds of people, lively discussion of current issues, the discerning observation of
human behavior, and intellectual zest. In these and other ways, the study of philosophy
contributes immeasurably in both academic and other endeavors in life.

Philosophy, as a systematic study of ideas and issues, examines concepts and views
drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other endeavor. Philosophical appraisal
of ideas and issues takes many forms, but philosophical studies often focus on the meaning
of an idea and on its basis, coherence, and relations to other ideas. Philosophy, in general,
guarantees wisdom, leadership, and an excellent guide for our genuine existence.
Philosophy will never become obsolete as long as there is life.

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 2. Approaches in Doing Philosophy

Since time immemorial, people need morality that promotes unity, peace, harmony
and solidarity in community. The moral life is and will always be the concern of humanity
and for as long as people have been living together in groups, the moral regulation of
behavior has been necessary to the group's well-being. Although these morals were
formalized and made into arbitrary standards of conduct, they developed, sometimes
irrationally, after religious taboos were violated, or out of chance behavior that became
habit and then custom, or from laws imposed by chiefs to prevent disharmony in their
tribes. Ancient Egyptian and Sumerian civilizations developed no systematized ethics; yet,
maxims and precepts set down by secular leaders mixed with a strict religion that affected
the Egyptian worldview. In ancient China, the maxims of Confucius were accepted as a
moral code. The Greek philosophers, beginning about the 6th century BCE, theorized
intensively about moral behavior, which led to the further development of philosophical
ethics.

From the Ionians to Socratic Greek world, it was always about the amazement and
wonder of how to live in relation to the environment. As such, these thinkers were then
cosmocentric because they were reflecting on the relation of man to nature. Medieval life
was focused on the relation of man to God thus were theocentric because they were
proving God as the beginning and end of man’s life. Modern thinkers were focused on the
use of human reasoning and human abilities thus from then on, the main concern of doing
things was anthropocentric because everything is centered on the human person.
Contemporary life or human endeavor today integrate the moral experience of
cosmocentrism, theocentrism, and anthropocentrism. In short, we cannot deny our human
need for nature, interpretation of human experience in relation to faith towards the
Mystery, the Sacred or the Divine Being; and, the need to bring back the glory of humanity
as the center of all human experiences. Practically, there is no denial of ethical life so that
it is important to consider why are there moral standards and how do they differ from rules
of lives. What are moral dilemmas? Why is freedom crucial in our ability to make moral
decisions? What are the advantages of owning moral standards over merely abiding by
moral standards? Let us now look into the following moral versus non-moral standards,
moral dilemmas, three levels of moral dilemmas and, foundation of morality.

 3. Importance of Philosophy in life

Generally, philosophy is important 1) For acquiring persuasive powers: Philosophy

helps develop one’s ability and charisma to be more convincing of himself and of others.
2) For better communication skills: Philosophy helps one to express properly one's views,
enhances one's ability to explain difficult and challenging reading materials, and helps
one to eliminate ambiguities and vagueness from one's writing and speech; 3) For
enhancing better writing skills: Philosophy helps one to use his philosophical reasoning
and imaginations, and express his ideas through writing. Creativity and originality are also
encouraged; 4) For problem solving: Philosophy helps one to distinguish fine differences
between views and to discover common ground between opposing positions.
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Specifically, philosophy is important in educational pursuits. It is very much beneficial

in the pursuit of education: 1) For better understanding of other academic disciplines:
Philosophy is helpful and useful in assessing the various standards of evidence used by
other academic disciplines; 2. For enhancing and developing sound methods of research
and analysis: Philosophy emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems, selection of
relevant data, and objective methods for assessing ideas and proposals, 3. For those
undergraduates who wants to pursue post- graduate studies: Philosophy, as a course, is a
good preparation for post-graduate degrees such as Law, Medicine, Master in Business
Administration, Master in Public Administration, Master in Educational Management, and
other master’s program.

Philosophy is also important in non-academic careers: 1) For personal development;

Philosophy helps one to gain better self-knowledge, better foresight, and a better sense of
direction in life; 2) For professional advancement and promotion: People trained in
philosophy are not only prepared to do many kinds of tasks; they can also easily cope with
change, or even move into new careers, more readily than others. A recent long-term
study by the Bell Telephone Company, determined that majors in liberal arts fields, in which
philosophy is a central discipline, "continue to make a strong showing in managerial skills
and have experienced considerable business success" (Career Patterns, by Robert E.
Beck).

EXPLAIN

To give you a brief overview of philosophy’s humble beginning and its development,
explore Hank’s 10-minute video here: [Link]

ELABORATE

With the given discussion above and the video you explored, show what you think are
the implication/s of the three main themes in philosophy on what makes a philosopher,
“philosopher,” in short, “what does it mean to love wisdom?”

“lover of
wisdom”

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MODULE 2: Basic and Key Concepts in Ethics

Module 2 will introduce you to the basic terms used in Ethics and to the main components
to be considered when dealing with ethical issues and when making moral decisions. In
this module we will:
(1) examine the subject matter of Ethics;
(2) determine what ethics is, and what ethics is not;
(3) distinguish actions, on whether they are “human acts” or “acts of man”
(4) show examples of moral dilemmas; and
(5) analyze the different determinants of morality.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of Module 2, you should be able to:

1. explain the similarities and differences of “ethics/ethical” and “morality/morals;”
2. articulate the importance of Ethics to one’s life;
3. judge whether the dilemma faced by people in given situations are moral dilemmas
or not;
4. point out which among the determinants of morality is/are involved in a certain
dilemma; and
5. demonstrate understanding of the fundamental concepts in ethics and morality
such as “knowledge,” “voluntariness,” and “impartiality” by applying them in solving
certain moral dilemmas.

ENGAGE

Many people easily make a judgment of others based on what they see about the
other at their “face value.” For instance, when we see a person giving a penny to a
beggar, he may right away be considered as a “moral person,” a “good” person who is
doing what is “right.” Or when we see someone being caught be a police officer for
stealing, he is right away judged as an “immoral person,” a “bad” person who did
something wrong.

Do you think that it is OK to make a judgment about the morality or immorality of

the person by simply basing on what the other have shown us, or from what we have heard
about them? Would the circumstances of people matter when making moral judgments?
Write your answers in the box provided.

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EXPLORE

 2. Basic and Key Concepts in Ethics

2.1. What is Ethics

Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos,” which means a characteristic way of
acting which also refers to the principles or standards of human conduct. Ethics is also
called moral philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending
concepts of right and wrong behavior; thus, ethics is sometimes referred to as the study of
morality. It is said to be a science insofar as it is a body of systematized knowledge
arranged with its accompanying explanation. In terms of content, it is not to be classified
as a course in science. Ethics as a practical science means that it consists of principles and
laws that are applied in daily living. In this sense, ethics is not a course taken for the sake
of contemplation; rather, it is a study taken for application in a person’s everyday course
of action. Ethics then is an applied knowledge.

As a philosophical science, ethics is not a technical course or a laboratory study.

Devoid of human experience, it presents and deliberates its subject matter “in the light of
its deepest principles by means of human reason alone.” There are various ways of defining
and discussing Ethics: 1) Ethics is a subject matter with content. It is a discipline with a body
of knowledge; 2) Ethics is a process of decision-making because it is a thinking skill leading
to actions that we perform coupled with accountability; 3) Ethics refers to well based
standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights,
obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. It refers to standards that impose
the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and
fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and
loyalty. Ethical standards include values relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right
to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards
of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons; 4) Ethics
refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards. Since feelings, laws, and
social norms can deviate from what is ethical, it is necessary to constantly examine one's
standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. It is a continuous effort of
studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct and striving to ensure that we live
up to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based; and, 5) Ethics involves the study
and application of “right” conduct. When people ask themselves, “What ought I to do?”
they are concerned of their actions that might be wrong or are having difficulty working
through the moral or values dimensions and from these, they are asking an ethical question.

What Ethics is Not

Before we understand the moral from the non-moral standards, it is important to

look into some misinterpretations and misconceptions of what Ethics is all about. Such
misinterpretations and misconceptions can obliterate the real essence of Ethics as an
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important branch of Philosophy. Raymond Baumhart, a sociologist, asked some people,

"What does ethics mean to you?" Among their replies were the following: "Ethics has to do
with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong;" "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs."
"Being ethical is doing what the law requires;" "Ethics consists of the standards of behavior
our society accepts;" and, "I don't know what the word means." These replies might be
typical of our own. The meaning of ethics is hard to pin down, and the views that some
people have about ethics are shaky and dangerous.

Ethics and Feelings

Ethics is not the same with psychology but is
Like Baumhart's first respondent, many a companion to it. Ethics is not merely
people tend to equate ethics with their attributed to observations and scientific
feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a interpretations of behaviors like what
matter of following one's feelings. A person psychology does. The ethicists dig deeper on
following his or her feelings may recoil from the reason why an action is such without
necessarily quantifying and measuring human
doing what is right. In fact, feelings
behaviors. However, psychology admits that it
frequently deviate from what is ethical.
developed and progressed in the course of time
Several students fall into the trap of
due to the contribution of philosophy, a
engaging in pre-marital sex because they
companion to its scientific investigations of
allow their feelings or emotions to
human behaviors.
dominate their rationality.

Ethics and Religion

Ethics is not the same with religion but Most religions, of course, advocate high
speaks about it. While religion seeks the ethical standards. Yet if ethics were confined
meaning of human existence through spiritual to religion, then ethics would apply only to
nourishment with Creed, Code and religious people. But ethics applies as much to
Ceremonies, ethics dwell on the reason or the behavior of the atheist as to that of the
existence of religion. This explains why we saint. Religion can set high ethical standards
have philosophy of religion. However, since and can provide intense motivations for
religion uses reason to explain faith like ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be
theology, then we do philosophize which we confined to religion nor is it the same as
call moral philosophy. In fact, ethics is also religion.
known as the study of morality.

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Ethics and Law

Ethics is not the same with studying
Being ethical is also not the same as following law but is closely related to it. While
the law. The law often incorporates ethical law is concerned about the effects of
standards to which most citizens subscribe. But action through punishment and
laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is reward, ethics dwell on a deeper
ethical. What is legal is not necessarily ethical; meaning of action by finding the main
but what is ethical is necessarily worth reason of the act. This explains the old
legalizing. For instance; gambling, divorce, adage, “not all legal is ethical.”
abortion, and the like can be legalized in some However, if ethics reflect laws founded
nations, but they do not necessarily mean that on reason as their bases, then we do
they are ethical. philosophizing like legal ethics.

Ethics and what Society accepts:

Ethics is not the same with culture Being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever
but is closely connected to it. Ethics is society accepts." In any society, most people
not only about etiquette or manners like accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But
the GMRC (Good Manners and Right standards of behavior in society can deviate
Conduct) we used to learn. Learning from what is ethical. An entire society can
variety of cultural norms is not a become ethically corrupt. Nazi Germany
guarantee of ethical evaluation. This before, particularly during the time of the
explains why ethics is not only holocaust, is a good example of this. If being
researches in cultural anthropology or ethical were doing "whatever society accepts,"
sociology that studies behaviors of a then to find out what is ethical, one would have
social group, an organization or a to find out what society accepts. To decide
community. However, in studying what I should think about abortion, for example,
society and culture, we have social I would have to take a survey of American
philosophy to explain the reasons of society and then conform my beliefs to
organizations to exist. We can say then whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries
that culture and society are associated to decide an ethical issue by doing a survey.
with ethics as a branch of philosophy.
Finally, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate
ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do
not. If being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an
agreement on issues which does not, in fact, exist.

Ethics is not the same with morality but is closely linked to it. While moral standard or
norm of action is fixed and already set, ethics dwells on the use of reason. It is because we
cannot limit philosophy from mere norms of conduct. However, ethics is identical to moral
science or moral philosophy based from the Latin term mos (nominative) or moris (genitive)
which also means custom, or “traditional line of conduct.” It is from this root word that the
word moral or morality is derived. The term morality is synonymous with the word ethics in
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etymological meaning; however, ethics deals more on the principles and laws on the
morality of human acts by providing the person knowledge that s/he may know, what to
do and how to do it. In other words, ethics provides the guides to the performance of an
act.

2.2. Importance of ethics

For some people, the importance of ethics only comes as a result of

encountering unethical conduct. But if Ethics is inculcated into one’s system, it is
being carried into one’s bloodstream and to the day-to-day activity of the
individual. Ethics is an important requirement for human existence. It is our means
of deciding a proper course of action. Without it, our actions would be aimless and
not properly rooted. When a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to
correctly organize our goals and actions to accomplish our most important values.
Any blunder in our ethical values will reduce our ability to be successful in our
endeavors.

Ethics is important because of the following reasons: 1) It serves as a guide towards

our goals, rather than just allowing our lives to be controlled by self-serving motives,
accidental occurrences, customs, feelings, or our impulses; 2) It helps us deepen our
reflection on the ultimate questions of life and help us think better about the concerns of
morality; 3) It offers us a wider perspective on how to live our life to the fullest, taking into
consideration that we do not have the luxury of eternal time in this world; 4) It reminds us
of our duties, responsibilities, and accountabilities to ourselves, to our fellowmen, to our
society, to our nation, and to the world in general; 5) It encourages us to examine our life
and honestly evaluate how we are responding to the challenges and demands of this
contemporary time; 6) It increases our capacity to perceive and be sensitive to relevant
moral issues that deserve consideration in making our choices that will have significant
impact on ourselves and on others; 7) It polishes, strengthens and brings out to the fore our
value priorities in life which will make us better and happy individuals; and, 8) It helps us
realize and become what we ought to be in this challenging, yet beautiful, world.

2.3. Recognizing Terms in Ethics

There are ethical terms to be distinguished in relation to human acts: It is important

to consider Moral, Amoral, and Immoral actions.

Moral actions or events are those which require the goodness of the object chosen,
the intention or the end in view, and of the circumstances together. Moral actions
are deemed to be good as one performs the moral rules or codes of the society.

Immoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest where moral
categories do apply and are considered to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to
the code of ethics. For examples: consciously telling a lie; graft and corruption;
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cheating during examinations, gluttony, taking a sip of water fully aware that there
is hemlock in it (suicide), and many more.

Amoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest exhibiting

indifference. At times, these are manifested in the absence of knowledge, freedom
and voluntariness on the part of the acting agent. For examples: a young child who
speaks bad words, an Aeta who just came from the mountain obstructs a city traffic,
a person innocently taking a sip of water but the water contains a hemlock, or a
man accidentally entering the ladies comfort room.

2.4. Moral versus Non-Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a situation in ethics where the human person is to choose

between two possible alternatives and the options become limited. In decision-making,
even when you do not want to choose to act in a situation, that is still considered a choice.
It is impossible then that there is no possible option. Thus, whatever is the decision a person
makes, it is expected for that person to stand and be responsible with the decision s/he
takes whatever the consequences could be. To decide is to be responsible.

Moral dilemma happens when we cannot make a distinction between what is a

good act from an evil act. When we encounter question of ethics like, is it moral to attend
my class even if I am sick? Is it necessary to avoid killing someone when my life is in danger?
Is waking up early necessary when am always late in going to school? Is it important to
maintain my diet even if my doctor advised me not to? To avoid moral dilemma, it is
important to distinguish the good act from a bad act.

A morally good act requires the goodness of the object chosen, of the intention,
and of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is
good in itself like for instance in the case of praying and fasting in order to be seen by men.
The chosen object can by itself vitiate or destroy an act in its entirety. There are some
concrete acts, such as bribery, robbery, fornication, and the like, which are always wrong
to choose, because choosing them entails an evil act.

It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only the
intention that inspires them or the circumstances which supply their context. There are acts
which, in and of themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy, murder, adultery, and the like.
One may not do evil so that good may result from it. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an
evil action cannot be justified by reference to a good intention. A good intention does not
make the action or behavior that is intrinsically disordered, good or just. The end does not
justify the means. Thus, the condemnation of an innocent person cannot be justified as a
legitimate means of saving the country.

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2.5. Distinction of Action:

Human acts are the fundamental foundation of morality. These acts which are
under the control of the will and therefore done knowingly and willingly; not acts which
happen by accident, as falling, or by nature, as growing, but acts performed by choice,
that is, after deliberation and decision. They are imputable to their human author to the
extent that he has knowledge of his own activity and its import, and to the extent that he
has freedom of election. The moral or ethical character of the human act lies in this, that
it is freely placed with knowledge of its objective conformity or nonconformity with the law
of rational nature.

As elaborated by ethicists, human acts are characterized by the following: 1) Acts

which are free and voluntary; 2) Acts done with knowledge and consent; 3) Acts which
are proper to man as man; because of all animals, he alone has knowledge and freedom
of the will; 4) Acts which are under man’s control, and for which he is responsible for its
consequences; and, 5) Acts which man is the master and has the power of doing or not
doing as he pleases. On the other hand, human acts should be differentiated from ordinary
‘acts of man’. Acts of man are bodily actions performed without deliberation and in the
absence of the will. For instances, the blinking of our eyelids, our breathing patterns,
sneezing, and the like are considered as acts of man. In many ways, we are accountable
to our actions but somehow our responsibility is lessened unlike human acts that absolutely
require moral obligation and responsibility.

Human Act requires moral responsibility that is derived from a person. If responsibility
is a coined term of “response” and “ability” then the ability to response is important in ethics
because “no one can give what s/he does not have.” It is expected for young people
studying ethics to respond to the problems of society today based on their capacities. As
such, we can apply the old saying, “if there’s a will, there’s a way.” For example, the right
to vote in local and national election, participate in any assembly, joining school
organizations, becoming choir members of the Church, joining professional associations,
and other organizing activities, are simple ways that young people can do to become
responsible individuals. If a person achieves an ethical attitude, it presupposes that s/he
takes moral responsibility to society. A personal conviction of what is “right and wrong”
becomes a social duty and such duty must be put into action. This makes ethics an
axiology, or what philosophy calls praxis, the emphasis on the practical application of
ethical ideas.

There are two significant considerations of ethics; the Ethics of Being and the Ethics of
Doing. In the Ethics of Being, the emphasis is on the “character development” which
involves the integrations of virtues, values and personhood; it is looking into the foundation
of actions who is the “good person” while the Ethics of Doing focuses not only the goodness
of the person but on the ability of the person to put into action his/her ethical conviction
(Fr. Ramon Coronel & Fr. Paul Van Parijs, CICM, Bioethics, 1996). It is not enough simply to
be contented in believing to be a good person while forgetting to do good actions; on
the other hand, it also not good just to think that you are doing good while you forget that
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you are first and foremost a good person. There is the need to harmonize the two
considerations of ethics; hence, you do a good act because you believe and think that
you are a good person capable of doing good. Both considerations are inseparably
related to be better person – intellectually mature, psychologically stable, socially
involved, spiritually nourished and economically well-off; and, to do good acts.

Our ethical responsibility is reflected in the following scheme:

Foundation of Morality

Responsibility
Ethics: Human acts: Bases of

Moral
Ethics
human responsibility: Free,
Theory and
voluntary, and deliberate
Principles as
guidelines of
human actions

The fundamental bases of morality start with the use of reason, exercise of human
freedom, willful, voluntariness, and deliberate act. Ethical principles and theories are
guidelines for human actions for which we can only talk about moral responsibility. It is
because we cannot be totally responsible to our actions that we are not aware of. We
can only be responsible to our actions that we are aware of, freely acting on them, and
voluntarily responding to the circumstance we are engaged in. With our moral conviction
arises our moral responsibility.

2.6. Three-fold Elements of Human Acts

There are three essential elements to consider any action to be a human act.
Without one of these elements, the action cannot be considered as a human act. These
are knowledge, freedom of the will, and voluntariness.

Knowledge is awareness or being conscious of one’s actions including its possible

consequences. The act of knowing is always consciousness of something which is
inevitably linked to the subject, who is the knower. For example, an insane person and a
three-year old child are not liable for their actions since they are not capable of acting
with proper knowledge. Their actions can never be considered as immoral. College
students and professionals are expected to be possessors of knowledge; thus, they cannot
claim excuses for their immoral actions. They are liable for the consequences of their
actions. According to Aristotle, knowledge is the first element of ethical practice. This
knowledge provides a framework for deliberating about the most appropriate technique(s)
by which the good can be attained. But, it should be noted that; although, knowledge is
a requirement for considering an act to be a human act, being knowledgeable or being

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aware of what is ethical or moral is not a guarantee that the person is already considered
as an ethical or moral person. It is not enough for an individual to know what is good. What
really count are his good acts.

Freedom of the Will. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, this is the power which human
beings have in determining their actions according to the judgment of their reasons. This
always involves a choice or an option of whether to do or not to do a certain action.
Without this freedom of choice, then responsibility and/or liability on the part of the
individual would be meaningless. Insane people who have no control of their minds and
children who have no idea of what they are doing or are not free to do or not to do, are
not responsible for their actions. Matured people, college students and professionals are
expected to be free from doing or not doing; thus, they are responsible or liable for their
actions.

Voluntariness. This is an act of consenting or accepting a certain action whether it

is done whole-heartedly, half-heartedly, or non-heartedly. According to Aristotle, the moral
evaluation of an action presupposes the attribution of responsibility to a human agent;
thus, responsible action must be undertaken voluntarily (Nicomachean Ethics III). Agapay
presented four modes of voluntariness. These are perfect, imperfect, conditional, and
simple voluntariness.

Perfect Voluntariness is actualized by a person who is fully aware and who fully
intends an act. The person, under perfect voluntariness, is fully convinced of his action
including its consequences. A politician who, in his right mind, engages in graft and
corruption is considered to be acting with perfect voluntariness. Imperfect Voluntariness is
seen in a person who acts without the full awareness of his action or without fully intending
the act. A drunken person who, acting irrationally, jumps from a ten-storey building is said
to be exhibiting an imperfect voluntariness. Conditional Voluntariness is manifested by a
person who is forced by his circumstances beyond his control to perform an action which
he would not do under normal condition. A freshman college student who is forced by his
parents to enroll in a course which is against his will is showing a conditional voluntariness.
Simple Voluntariness is exhibited by a person doing an act willfully regardless of whether
he likes to do it or not. It can either be positive or negative. It is a positive simple
voluntariness when the act requires the performance of an act. For examples: Studying
one’s lesson; participating in class discussions; engaging in sports, and so on. It is a negative
simple voluntariness when the act does not require the performance of an act. For
examples: Remaining silent or choosing to be alone; deciding not to go to a drinking spree;
avoiding to take illegal drugs; and so on.

2.7. Determinants of Morality

Freedom makes man a moral subject. When he acts deliberately, man is, so to
speak, the master of his acts. Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen in
consequence of a judgment of conscience, can be morally evaluated. They are either
good or evil. The morality of human acts depends on the object chosen; the end in view

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or the intention; and the circumstances of the action. These are the factors to consider in
making ethical judgement in determining the morality of human acts.

Object Chosen: This is a good toward which the will deliberately directs itself. The
chosen object resides out the acting subject. The object chosen morally specifies the act
of the will, insofar as reason recognizes and judges it to be or not to be in conformity with
the true good. Examples of Good Chosen Objects: nutritious foods; hard-earned money or
wealth; educational books and films; and the like. Examples of Bad Chosen Objects:
Forbidden drugs; Pornographic materials; Leakages for examinations; and others.

The Intention: This is a movement of the will toward the end. It is concerned with the
goal of the activity. The end is the first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose
pursued in the action. It aims at the good anticipated from the action undertaken.
Intention is not limited to directing individual actions but can guide several actions toward
one and the same purpose; it can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end. For
example, a service done with the end of helping one's neighbor can at the same time be
inspired by the love of the Divine Being as the ultimate end of all our actions. One and the
same action can also be inspired by several intentions, such as performing a service in
order to obtain a favor or to boast about it. The intention resides in the acting subject as
contrast to the object chosen. Because it lies at the voluntary source of an action and
determines it by its end, intention is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an
action.

The Circumstances: These, including the consequences, are secondary elements of

a moral act. They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of
human acts. For instances: the number of people killed; the amount of money being stolen;
the number of trees cut by loggers; the regularity of the graft and corruption done by
politicians; the number of times a lie is spoken; or, the number of times a student cheated.
They can also diminish or increase the agent's responsibility. For examples: acting out of
ignorance or fear of death; acts done because of habit; choosing between two or more
evils in a certain situation; being forced to do something against one’s will; and so on. It
should be noted that circumstances of themselves cannot change the moral quality of
acts themselves; they can make neither good nor right an action that is in itself evil.

In Summary: A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end,
and of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is
good in itself (such as praying and fasting "in order to be seen by men"). The object of the
choice can by itself vitiate an act in its entirety. There are some concrete acts - such as
fornication - that it is always wrong to choose, because choosing them entails a disorder
of the will, that is, a moral evil. It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts
by considering only the intention that inspires them or the circumstances (environment,
social pressure, duress or emergency, etc.) which supply their context. There are acts
which, in and of themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy and perjury, murder and
adultery. One may not do evil so that good may result from it.

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The object, the intention, and the circumstances make up the three "sources" of the
morality of human acts. The object chosen morally specifies the act of willing accordingly
as reason recognizes and judges it good or evil. "An evil action cannot be justified by
reference to a good intention" (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, Dec. praec. 6). A morally good act
therefore requires the goodness of its object, of its end, and of its circumstances together.
There are concrete acts which are always wrong to choose, because their choice entails
a disorder of the will, i.e., a moral evil. One may not do evil so that good may result from it.

EXPLAIN

Categorize whether the act is a Human Act or an Act of Man. Before each number, write
A if the act is a Human Act, or write B if the act is an Act of Man.
1. Jogging every morning
2. Brush, brush, brush, 3 times a day
3. Women’s monthly period
4. Praying before and after meals
5. Sighing
6. Writing a good novel
7. Reading magazines everyday
8. Texting /communicating with your bf/gf daily
9. Breathing
10. Greeting your friend a happy birthday

ELABORATE

What is “impartiality?” Elaborate its role and significance in making moral decisions
in the box provided.

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References:

Agapay, Ramon B. (1991) Ethics and the Filipino: A manual on morals for students and
educators. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc., 1991.

Andre, Claire and Manuel Velasquez. (Fall 1987). Issues in ethics: Vol.1 No.1, Markkula
Center for Applied Ethics.

Audi, Robert. (2000). Philosophy: A brief guide to undergraduates. The American

Philosophical Association.

Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC). (1994) Catholic Bishops Conference of the
Philippines (CBCP).

Coronel, Ramon & Parijs, Paul Van, CICM. Bioethics (1996). Baguio City: St. Louis University
(SLU)

Frank Navran, (1998) Ethics. Resource Center’s Principal Consultant Jackson, Wayne.
Christian Courier: Archives. October 26, 1998.

Gensler, Harry J. (1998). Ethics: A contemporary introduction. New York: Routledge.

Gualdo, et al. (2012). Ethics and contemporary moral issues. Revised Edition. Quezon City:
Mutya Publishing.

Kaplan, J. D, Ed. (1958). The pocket Aristotle. New York: Washington Square Press.

Montemayor, Felix. Ethics: The philosophy of life. (1994). Navotas: National Bookstore.

Petrick, Joseph A and John F. Quinn. (1997) Management ethics: Integrity at work.
California: Sage Publications, Inc., 1997), pp. 89-91.

Rachels, James (2003). The elements of moral philosophy. 4th Edition. Boston: McGraw
Hill.

Velasquez, Manuel. (2005). Philosophy: Text with readings. “Ethics.” 9th Edition.
Australia: Thomson and Wadsworth.

Electronic Sources:
[Link]/staff_bios.
[Link]
[Link]/terms/s/[Link]
[Link]/info_7861861_difference-[Link]
[Link]/social-justice/social-responsibility-and-ethics
[Link]/social-responsibility/

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MODULE 3: The Moral Agent

Module 3 looks at culture and its role in the development of the human person’s moral
behavior. Here we will be looking at our own Filipino culture vis-à-vis Asian and other
countries’ culture, and determine their influences in our process of becoming as moral
human agents. Specifically, this module aims to:
(1) revisit our own Filipino cultures and reflect on their roles in the development of our
moral behaviors;
(2) familiarize with other countries’ cultural practices and beliefs;
(3) understand what is “Cultural Relativism;”
(4) analyze cultural ambivalence
(5) show the different stages of moral development

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of Module 3, you should be able to:

1. explain what is “Cultural Relativism;”
2. defend the morality or critique for the immorality of certain cultural practices;
3. articulate the strengths and weaknesses of your own culture;
4. enumerate the different stages of Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development; and
5. point out exactly which stage a person is “in to” in given situations;

ENGAGE

Give at least (A) one cultural practice in the place you grew up in to, which is openly
performed but you think is immoral, and (B) another one cultural practice in your place
which is prohibited but you think is moral. Give a brief justification for both.

A. _______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

B. _______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

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EXPLORE

 3.1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior

What is the role of culture in shaping moral behavior?

For centuries, culture has been

Kinds of Culture
defined in so many ways. But
Culture is that complex whole anthropologists, scientists,
which includes knowledge, belief, Individual Culture
thinkers and experts could not (i.e. Rodrigo,
art, morals, law, custom, and any
create and agree on one Baustista, Donald,
other capabilities and habits
universal definition of culture. student, driver, farmer)
acquired by man as a member of
society,” Studies and discussions about it Organizational
Culture (i.e., company,
[Tylor, E. (Spencer- Oatey, 2012)] are impressively mushrooming
instituion, association
and increasingly becoming agency, corporation,
controversial everywhere. Thus, group, firm, assembly)
it would be safer to first typify culture into two: material and formal. Structural (i.e.,
network of institutions,
Formal Culture points to all the abstract, non-physical, information systems,
global network, United
spiritual, mental, immaterial, invisible elements such as knowledge,
Nations)
philosophy, beliefs, ideas, morals, laws, customs, values, emotions,
assumptions, systems, orientations. Whereas Material Culture refers
to all the physical, corporeal, solid, spatial, sensible, temporal, Arranged Child
actual, observable (visible and audible) and tangible objects such Marriage is a
as the artifacts, actions or behaviors, arts, buildings, technology, cultural practice by
music, “popular” (television, movies, mass media, social media, some of the tribes in
fads, digital gadgets), costumes, architectures, food, utensils, the Cordilleras in
designs, dances, smell, means of transportation, tools and which some parents
inventions. As a vehicle or expression, Material Culture is shaped by agree on having
Formal Culture in the same way as the Material Culture (e.g. popular their children to get
culture) may also shape Formal Culture (e.g. new radical religious marry when they
sects). reach young
adulthood. ”
The two types are interrelated co-principles. Their being intertwined
[Tylor, E. (Spencer-
makes an overlap that makes it difficult to create a universal Oatey, 2012)]
meaning of culture. This is manifested in Oatey’s (2012) distinction
of the three fundamental levels at which culture manifests itself: (a)
observable artifacts, (b) values, and (c) basic underlying assumptions. They could also be
categorized as the individual culture, organizational culture and structural culture.
Following the Western or deductive process since culture is a foreign concept, the three
levels of culture are discussed from the structural to the individual.

The first level (INDIVIDUAL), the analysis of the Eskimo’s moral behavior (under
Material Culture) – “lending his wife to a guest for a night” is visible and easily described as
distasteful but hard to decipher or interpret especially the underlying good or right reasons
why it is done and being preserved.

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Following Oatey’s (2012), to analyze this Eskimo’s moral behavior it is important to

study the values (under both Material and Formal Culture) that govern such behavior. But
the espoused value such as hospitality (Rachels, 2003) of “lending a wife to a guest for a
night” is hard to observe directly. So when the Eskimos say that such moral behavior is part
of their hospitality it is interesting to analyze why hospitality is the reason for such behavior,
what they ideally would like hospitality to be, and what are often their rationalizations for
“lending of wife to a guest for a night.” Or could it be that the value of hospitality is just the
biased understanding of non-Eskimo observers. The value of hospitality is becoming the
acceptable value to some Eskimos and outsiders. Nevertheless, the underlying espoused
value of hospitality for the “lending of wife to a guest for a night” remains unknown.

“To really understand a culture and to ascertain more completely the group’s values and
overt behavior, it is imperative to enquire into the underlying assumptions, which are
typically unconscious but which actually determine how group members perceive, think
and feel” (Oatey, 2012). Assumptions (under Formal Culture) are the philosophies and
beliefs about what things really are or their conceptions of what is good and right
(morality). They are learned and transformed values that lead to moral behaviors. To
explain such moral behavior then is to consider their assumptions on marriage, sex and life
as a whole. To Rachels (2003), this could be traced from their assumptions: that men could
marry more than one wife, that men can have sex regularly with other men’s wives, and
that they have less regard to human life. But, as a value of hospitality leads to the behavior
of “lending of wife to a guest for a night,” and as the “lending of wife to a guest for a night”
begins to answer disagreements or condemnations, the value of hospitality gradually is
transformed into an underlying assumption and the three original assumptions are
increasingly taken for granted. The taken-for-granted assumptions are so powerful
because they are less or non-debatable. There is a possibility to just be silent about it
because it can cause disorder and more troubles among them. Besides, they are more
concerned with other challenges of life. According to Oatey’s (2012): “they can be
brought back to awareness only through a kind of focused inquiry.”

3.1.a. The Role of Moral Behavior in Creating a Culture

It is not hidden to the consciousness of everyone that as culture shapes moral

behaviors, moral behaviors simultaneously create culture. Culture and moral behaviors are
inseparable of which a culture could be found in moral behavior just as the moral
behaviors happen in or even create and enhance a culture. This follows the Eastern or
inductive process whereby the individual leads to the structural. This is best expressed by
the author below:

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“All that I am, all that I have, all that I do… are all products of “Culture in its
my culture. I am and live in a culture, which eventually broadest sense is
becomes me, my very person. I cannot escape from my cultivated behavior;
culture. It determines my every personal behavior, which that is the totality of a
simultaneously reveal the kind of my culture. person's learned,
accumulated
experience, knowledge,
Using the same example of the Bontoc Igorots, the process beliefs, values,
could be inverted in such a way that their artifact “o′-lâg” or the attitudes, meanings,
physical separation of the young marriageable women to live in the hierarchies, systems,
“o′-lâg” is what shapes their value of high respect for women and religion, notions of
time, roles, spatial
their beliefs that monogamous marriage is a blessing of God in order
relations, concepts of
to raise many children and that a married woman should always be the universe, and
true to her husband. material objects and
possessions which is
Further, the claim that the invading socially transmitted.”
Symbols
western foreigners who brought with them
“Every culture is filled their creations or artifacts (symbols) such as their modern clothes,
with symbols, or things betamax (films) and others raised their level of awareness (just like
that stand for in the case of Adam and Eve after eating the forbidden apple). The
something else and that Bontoc women started to develop the values of honor and dignity
often evoke various through the feeling of embarrassment. Their involuntarily
reactions and
adaptation of the foreign values simultaneously made them hate
emotions. Some
symbols are actually or put malice on their own values. Then, their normal practices of
types of non-verbal being visited by men to have sex in the “o′-lâg” became a taboo
communication, while such that they were most likely shaping also their own culture and
other symbols are in assumptions that marriage is essentially a sexual relationship and
fact material objects.” separation is the answer to its problems, and that a married woman
(Retrieved from is free to be true or not to a husband depending on what works for
[Link] her (similar to that of the foreigners). Such assumptions are hard to
/8668.2401) know or even to justify and to impose on them because they are
invisible and taken for granted. There could also be other
assumptions that need further research.

Some observers attribute the growing “culture of rape” or dramatic increase of rape cases
in a certain place with the fast-growing foreign influences that spouse problematic values
and beliefs. Alarmed by this development, many moral behaviors have been initiated by
a top government official encouraging barangay officials not to amicably settle cases of
sexual abuse, and barangay councils to reassess their development plans for the
protection of children (Baybay, 2011). The political moral behavior only expresses that such
culture of immoral amicable settlement should not determine their values. It is his people’s
moral behaviors that should form a “culture of strong respect for children and women.”

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3.1.b. Cultural Relativism

With the advent of globalization and information technology, cultural diversity

became more immanent. People became more aware of the diverse cultures in the world
with just a click of their computer mouse. They could now easily visit or explore the cultures
of the world because of the advancement of transportation and technology. They have
increasingly become aware of cultural diversity and the influence of such awareness to
their understanding, decisions and values. Nevertheless, they have been constantly
confronted with the difficult moral questions of whether to just simply become neutral to
other cultures’ moral practices even if they are against their values or not, and whether to
simply adapt other cultural practices or not. They are challenged with the phenomenon
of Cultural Relativism.

Cultural Relativism refers to the

understanding or belief that
everything should be judged only
Some Cultural Facts
In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up
according to one’s own respective and down, we mean yes, and if we shake it back and
culture. A cultural relativist believes forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however, nodding
that there is no superior or inferior means no, while shaking our head back and forth
culture; no culture is better than the means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by
other. That is, all cultures are unique putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean
“OK,” but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe
with their own strengths and signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United
weaknesses, benefits and detriments. States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it
means the same thing as extending the middle finger in
In past centuries in Northern the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and
Luzon, the lowlanders’ discrimination Asia would be offended if they see you using your left
hand to eat, because they use their left hand for
of the Igorots could have been a
bathroom hygiene. Belgians count through their fingers
product of their belief that Igorots are starting from the thumb to the index finger while
animals because they have tails Filipinos start counting the opposite way.
(bahag or g-string) and live in the Retrieved from [Link]
mountains, therefore, are inferior to
their culture. But after the intermarriages
and interactions brought about by the development of roads and bridges, both
lowlanders and highlanders became aware of their need to understand each other not
from their own respective culture.

They have learned to put themselves “into the shoe of the other” or to understand
the other by using the other’s mind. Besides, other university students may be amused and
make fun of the UP students’ “oblation run” but they could never understand unless they
study how such practice relate to UP’s “way of life.” Likewise, UPians may not understand
other universities ’cultural celebrations if they will not study the institutional history.

Here are some of the strengths and weaknesses of Cultural Relativism:

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Strengths Weaknesses
Its fails to accept that not all beliefs
It recognizes cultural and human
and cultural or social practices are
differences.
equally admirable.
It promotes respect and tolerance to It leads to mediocrity, moral
diversity or cultural-sensitivity and indifference and end of moral
uniqueness. progress.
It produces a peaceful and harmonious It promotes social anarchy because
society despite mass migration and each culture claims and stands for “a
differences. true culture.”
It rejects moral absolutism, imperialism It upholds democracy, consensus and
and superior ideologies. fairness to other ideologies.
It recognizes the natural sociality,
It seems culture has the sole influence
conformity and interdependency
on human life and morality.
among peoples.
It strengthens personal responsibility: It weakens social responsibility as if
each is fully responsible for his own humans cannot do anything to
moral actions and beliefs. change culture.
It advocates true multiculturalism and It leads to deterioration or corruption
adjustments for changing factors in of moral values, institutions and
society. societies.
It promotes humility and acceptance of
It promotes skepticism and atheism.
limitation or probability of things.
It recognizes that language is not It discourages common language for
neutral because culture determines unity and common standards to judge
language. moral beliefs or actions.
It supports non-judgmental attitude that It makes the job of ethics as purely
foster dialogue, cooperation and descriptive (non-prescriptive), thus,
learning. ineffective.
It allows one culture solve its own moral
It rejects any interference by one
problems and grow naturally in its
culture in the morality of another.
morality.
It accepts other ethical theories that It fails to determine other ethical
can bring a good life. theories that can bring a good life.

Thus, Cultural Relativism is not absolute. There will always be an occasion where
people will somehow judge another culture as inferior through their own cultural beliefs
and practices. Somewhere, somehow, there are some cultural practices that are
condemned, even if they are the most valuable or practiced, because they violate some
basic human rights. For example, a common practice in areas of India and Pakistan
is dowry deaths, where a husband and his relatives murder the husband’s wife because

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her family has not provided the dowry they promised when the couple got married
(Kethineni & Srinivasan, 2009).

Non-tenability of Cultural Relativism in Ethics:

The Asian-Filipino Way Filipinos who know they
are doing wrong but do not
want to change easily find
While recognizing the strengths of Cultural Relativism for
excuses like "ako'y tao
loosening stringent and absolute attitudes and opening lamang" (I'm but
conservative minds toward others, it is very critical to respond human), "ganyan lamang
to the weaknesses of Cultural Relativism. Acknowledging ang buhay" (life is like
strengths should all the more encourage courageous solutions hat), "bahala na" (come
to the weaknesses of Cultural Relativism. These weaknesses what may), or "eveybody is
doing it."
could be answered by considering other ethical theories.
In this age of "passing the
Because of globalization that somehow ironically buck," another excuse
opened and vastly exposed cultural diversity, people have for shrinking
recognized cultural personal
variations over time responsibility is the
Some Socio-cultural Facts periods, between Filipinism, "I am not the
In China, South Korea, and other parts individuals, one".
of Asia, dog meat is considered a organizations,
delicacy, and people sometimes kill dogs Gorospe, V., SJ. Retrieved
structures, from [Link]
to eat them (Dunlop, 2008). As one countries and [Link]/2006/04/our
observer provocatively asked about
continents. -christian-god-religion-
eating dog meat, “For a Westerner, [Link]
eating it can feel a little strange, but is it
Cultures are seen
morally different from eating, say, pork? to reflect the moral
The dogs brought to table in China are and ethical
not people’s pets, but are raised as food, standards and beliefs that determine decision,
like pigs. And pigs, of course, are also actions and interactions. Moral practices are
intelligent and friendly” (Dunlop, basically peculiar to a society and as society
2008). Should we accept the practice of change its culture and practices also change.
eating dog meat on its own terms? Is it
any worse than eating pork or Using a changing culture as a basis for
slaughtering cattle in order to eat beef?
decisions and actions is not enough and quite
If an Asian immigrant killed and ate a
dog in the United States, should that
dangerous. The need for enduring belief and
person be arrested for engaging in a values as bases can bring more convincing and
practice the person grew up with? strong actions. Though humans have different
languages, they can use their capacity for
Retrieved from language to create a globalizing language
[Link] that all children can learn and use to study
other cultures.

As social beings who have invented technologies such as the internet, televisions,
airplanes, bullet trains, they have successfully created globalization. Globalization has
allowed different people of diverse cultures to constantly check and balance their beliefs
and standards. People may have experienced reluctance in judging other cultural
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practices but deep within them is the possibility of considering others’ cultures as inferior to
them. People are naturally inclined to the good and right so that they must have made a
choice whether theirs is better than the others though not necessarily considering them as
inferior. This has been the problem of many Filipino indigenous peoples who have felt
inferior to the foreigners because of their cultural practices and so they have blindly
adapted the foreigners’ culture.

However, some assumptions, beliefs and philosophies behind the indigenous

practices that were abandoned could be actually far better and practical than that of
the foreigners’.

According to Vitaliano Gorospe, SJ, “there is a Recent studies of college

conflict between what Filipinos say as Christians and what students provide additional
they do as Filipinos; between their actual Filipino behavior and evidence that social contact
can help overcome cultural
their ideal Christian behavior; in short, between what is and differences and prejudices.
what ought to be.” Because many students are
randomly assigned to their
Gorospe have observed that in the Filipino culture, roommates when they enter
which is the product of the long colonization of the Spaniard, college, interracial
roommates provide a
is based on "group-centeredness" or "group-thinking." The
“natural” experiment for
group determines for the individual what is right or wrong so studying the effects of social
has not yet attained moral independence and maturity. The interaction on racial
individual is guided by the basic questions: "What will my prejudice. Studies of such
family, or my relatives and friends, or my barkada think or say?" roommates find that whites
with black roommates’
"What will others say" usually determines Filipino moral
report lowered racial
behavior; it is "conscience from the outside." prejudice and greater
numbers of interracial
Gorospe accuses that Filipinos have a conflict between friendships with other
individual and social morality, between internal and external students. (Laar, Levin,
morality. He believes that Filipinos should internalize the norms Sinclair, & Sidanius, 2005;
Shook & Fazio, 2008).
of morality so that he can mature as individual and form his Retrieved from
own moral conscience from the inside. But using cultural [Link]
relativism, Gorospe may have misinterpreted the Filipinos. It 668.2401
must be understood that Christianity is a western religion
imposed to them.

Gorospe’s example: parents tell their daughter who is being courted: "Iha, please
entertain your boyfriend at home. Do not go outside. What will the neighbors say?
Nakakahiya naman." He believes that “shame or hiya makes the parents and the girl
conform to the social expectations of the neighbors lest they become the object
of chismis or gossip.” But this could be understood differently by saying that Filipinos are
highly social and cultural-sensitive. Filipinos just like other Asians recognize that their society
is greater than them and that they value group harmony and community. They could not
just be so individualistic in their decisions and actions just like the Westerners. Gorospe
could have interpreted Filipino values from the American or Western perspective.

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Consider the Japanese when moral problem arises. “Japanese minimize conflict by
resolving disputes amicably. Lawsuits are uncommon; in one case involving disease and
death from a mercury-polluted river, some Japanese who dared to sue the company
responsible for the mercury poisoning were considered bad citizens” (Upham, 1976). This
could be attributed to the high regard to group harmony and community just like the
Filipinos.

But another Filipino cultural norm cited by Gorospe, the "Don't be caught" based on
shame or fear of the authority figure such as parent, teacher, priest or policeman is quite
disturbing. As many students would say: "What's wrong with cheating if I am not caught?"
If this explains why Filipino drivers only obey traffic rules because there is a policeman on
duty, then Gorospe is correct in saying that Filipino norm of moral behavior is purely
external.

It could be argued that Gorospe is wrong in his assumptions, precisely because

Filipinos are just practical and flexible. They are ready to break rules for the sake of greater
values. One cannot just stop there and wait for the green light if there are practically no
other cars and passengers to cross or pass by. Likewise, because the traffic structures as
substitute to the presence of a policeman are Western cultural symbols. Filipinos are more
relational and appreciative to actual persons.

Those structures re not originally theirs; they are imposed on them to follow. If it is
not theirs, it is hard for them to follow. Thus, through the history of colonialization, the
conflict between being a real cultural Filipino (Asian) and the ideal mature Christian
(Western) Filipino have continued.

Christian Filipinos were treated like parrots that recite incantations/prayers and
learned by rote, like robots that observe religious holidays, church rites and other symbols
of Catholicism without really understanding what they mean or stand for, and like priests
who follow the Catholic Church institution, its rules and teachings. Filipinos where not really
taught to mature and to freely live or emulate the supposed ideas and life of Jesus. Putting
Gorospe’s observations on the problematic Filipino cultural practices in their proper
cultural context is not enough. Filipino culture has changed; it has adapted the Western
culture so it must consider the western moral standards.

Filipino culture could enter into a social contract with Western culture for
enhancement. Filipinos as social beings must adapt check and balance of their culture
with Western moral standards. It is better that outsiders also question Filipino Cultural
practices for improvement. What could happen more if there is no outsider’s moral
standard that condemns the Nazi party’s Holocaust?

What could happen to those who accept the Holocausts as good? What could
happen to Africa’s practice of female genital cutting if there is nobody to question it? If it
continues to happen, what could happen to Africa’s future generations?

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 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

According to Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stage Theory of Moral Development, there are
three (3) levels of moral character development namely;

Level 1: Pre-conventional level of moral development (Punishment and Obedience

– egoism or satisfying one’s desire). In this period, the child responds to the prevailing
cultural values of right or wrong, good and evil. The child has no actual understanding of
the values themselves and accepts the authority of others. The physical consequences of
the actions determine the rightness or wrongness, regardless of the attribution of values.
Response is based on two concerns, “Will I be harmed (punishment) and will I be be helped
(reward)?

Level 2: Conventional level of moral development (Pleasing others and Respecting

rules). The child conforms to societal expectations of family, group, or nation in order to win
the authority figures. Conventional morality is characterized by group conformity and
allegiance to authority. The individual acts in order to meet the expectations of others and
to please those in charge.

Level 3: Post-conventional level of moral development (Social contract and

Personal conscience). The focus of this level is the development of social contract and
autonomous decisions apart from outside authorities. Post-conventional morality is the
most advanced level of moral development where the individual is concerned with right
or wrong conduct over and above self-interest, apart from the views of others, and without
regard of authority figures. Ethical judgment is based on self-defined moral principles.

Six Stages of Moral Development

By: Lawrence Kohlberg

LEVEL 1 Moral Reasoning of

each Stage

Stage 1: Stage of Punishment and Obedience. “I won’t hit him so he

Rules are obeyed in order to avoid punishment. will not hit me back.”

Stage 2: Stage of Individual Instrumental Purpose “I will help him

and Exchange. Conformity to rules is viewed to be because he may help
in one’s own interest because it provides reward. me in return.”
Fear of punishment is a major motivator at this level “I work extra because I
want to be given
bonus points.”
LEVEL 2
Stage 3: Stage of Mutual Interpersonal “I will go along with you
Expectations, Relationships, and Conformity. The because I want you to
concern is about the reactions of others as bases for like me.”
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decisions and behaviors. The primary motive is to be “I will treat you for
good for others in order to maintain good relations. lunch so that we will be
friends.”
Stage 4: Stage of Social System and Conscience “I will comply to the
Maintenance. The person conforms to laws and to order because it is
those in authority because of duty. Both out of wrong to disobey.”
respect for them and in order to avoid censure. For
persons in this level, fulfilling role in society and living
up to expectations of others are important, and guilt
is more of a motivator than fear of punishment
noted in Level 1.
LEVEL 3

Stage 5: Stage of Prior Right and Social Contract “Although I disagree

or Utility. The relativity of some social values is with his views, I will
recognized, and moral decisions derive from uphold his right to have
principles that support individual rights and them.”
transcend particular societal rules such as equity,
liberty, and justice.
Stage 6: Stage of Universal Ethical Principles. “There is no external
Internalized rules and conscience reflecting force coming from
abstract principles of human dignity, mutual respect conflicting social norms
and trust guide decisions and behaviors. Persons in that can compel me to
this level make judgment based on impartial do an act that is
universal moral principles, even when these conflict considered morally
with societal standards. good.”

EXPLAIN

Visit the following short videos to familiarize yourself to different cultural practices and
beliefs around the world:

Strange Customs Around The World That Are Still Happening in 2019:
[Link]

Insane Beauty Standards Across Different Cultures:

[Link]
10 Most Bizarre Traditions From Around The World:
[Link]

For Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory on the 6 Stages of Moral Development, watch the
following short videos about it: [Link]
[Link]

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ELABORATE

Reflecting on Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, what is the highest stage you
have reached so far? Were you able to maintain or stay in that stage for a long time or
you slide to the lower levels every now and then? Elaborate.

EVALUATE

*** The graded tasks for Modules 1, 2 and 3 are all integrated into the following
assessments:

(1) Prelim Integrated Quiz

(2) Prelim Integrated Assignment

Your course facilitator will provide instructions for these in class.

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