Science, scientific method and critique

1. What are characteristics of scientific method? Do you think that scientific method in
conducting sociological research is fool-proof? Elaborate. (2023) (20 marks)

Scientific method refers to any systematic, rational and objective set of steps to
explore new knowledge or investigating phenomena. According to George Lundberg, scientific
methods consists of three basic steps- Observation, Classification and Analysis of Data.

Characteristics of Scientific Method:

According to Henry Johnson, there are 4 characteristics of Scientific Method:

Empirical

Characteristics
Theoretical of Scientific Cumulative
Method

Non Ethical

Some more characteristics are:

1. Objectivity: Scientific method relies on facts, which are freed from bias and
prejudices. Value neutrality is central to scientific methods.
2. Verifiable Evidence: i.e., factual observation which can be checked by peers too.
3. Reliability: It refers to truth or correctness of the statement or fact, increasing its
chances of generalization.
4. Systematic Observation: Scientific method relies on carefully planned studies rather
than on random or haphazard observations.
5. Causal Analysis: Scientific methods are used to establish the cause and effect of the
phenomenon under observation.

Extent of Scientific method in conducting sociological research:

The influence of natural sciences and use of scientific methods led to Positivism strand in
Sociology. The scientific methods were used to predict the working of society and its
members by quantifying their actions.

Eg. Marxists made predictive statements of a Proletarian Revolution in future.

Durkheim used statistical tools in his work ‘Le Suicide’ to study the Suicide Rate.

Criticism of Scientific Methods in Sociological research:

1. Phenomenologists like Peter Berger assert that the facts being studied using scientific
methods are context specific, and not universal in a society.
2. There are value judgements in a sociological research, as pointed out by Weber, which affect
research in Sociology. So complete objectivity is not possible in sociological research.
3. J.F. Feyerband contends that scientific method restricts the choices of researchers, and acts
as a constraint on the research.
4. Paul Feyerabend asserts that scientific method leads to epistemological anarchism which
ultimately interferes with the objectives of sociological research.
5. Laboratory experiments cannot be conducted in Sociology as they are done in a controlled
environment. Hence, universal laws are difficult to establish.
6. Alfred Schulz contends that human construct their world through common sense, ethical
values, assumptions and presumptions. These shouldn’t be overlooked while undertaking
research.

It can be said that the use of scientific methods in sociological research laid a solid
foundation of the nascent discipline free from religious and orthodox ideas, which led to
systematic investigation of the society.

2. Methodology is a system of rules, principles and procedures, which forms scientific

investigation. Comment. (2020) (10 marks)

Methodology is simply an outline of tools, techniques and procedures used within a

research study to gather information, analyse it and interpret it.

METHODOLOGY- Rules:

Rules are a set of explicit or understood regulations governing conduct of a particular

activity. For example, Emile Durkheim in his ‘The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895’ gave
following rules to study social facts:

1. Rules of Observation
2. Rules of Classification
3. Rules of Distinction
4. Rules of Explanation

This enabled an empirical observation of reality for Durkheim.

METHODOLOGY- Principles:

Principles are general scientific laws which serves as the foundation for a system of belief.
For instance, Herbert Spencer followed the Darwinian principle of organismic evolution to
formulate his theory of Social Darwinism.

METHODOLOGY- Procedures:

Procedure is an established way of doing a research. The procedure includes steps like
selecting variables, deciding questions, conducting interviews, etc.

By adhering to methodologies, scientific investigation maintains its reliability and validity

and enhances the value of research.
 3. Does scientific method make Sociology a science? Illustrate your answer with Durkheim’s
method. (2018) (10 marks)

Scientific method refers to processes by which researches gain knowledge about a

phenomenon. Though generally associated with natural sciences, early sociologists such as
Comte, Spencer and Durkheim used scientific methods to study society.

Sociology as a science by use of scientific methods:

1. Sociology was considered as a science because it was asserted that it has

considerable inter subjective reliability. Durkheim claimed that meaning of social
facts like religion, division of labour remain same for every investigator.
2. Durkheim also claimed objectivity in sociological research by restricting the scope of
the research to observable Material Social Facts, which are those that can be
observed in reality by an investigator.
3. Sociology was called as empirical in its approach by Durkheim since social facts were
observable in the reality.
4. Further use of comparative analysis and statistical methods to study different rates
of suicides among different groups.

But scientific methods alone cannot make sociology a science, due to following limitations:

1. Lack of controlled environment and experimentation in social settings.

2. Many Human actions are non-quantifiable.
3. Difficulty in framing universal laws in sociology.
4. Difficulty in testing the final results. Durkheim was often accused of committing
ecological fallacy as he tried to generalise a personal phenomenon like suicide.

Thus, as Horkheimer suggests, the methods used in sociological research shall focus on the
objective of the research and not the imitation of natural sciences.

4. Is non-positivistic methodology scientific? Illustrate. (2018) (20 marks)

Non Positivistic methodology, also known as Qualitative or Interpretive methodology, in

Sociology focus on subjective meanings and experiences of groups, and try to understand
individual’s interpretation of reality.

Phenomenology

Non – Positivist Symbolic

Interactionism
Methods

Ethnomethodology

The common elements of Non positivistic methodologies are:

1. Non Positivists study the internal processes represented through emotions, motives and
individual’s interpretation of reality.

for eg., Ethnomethodologists rely on everyday common sense knowledge to analyse

people’s Accounts.

2. Non positivists emphasized that man has consciousness unlike material things, and it
cannot be quantified. Thus they made use of qualitative methods. Irving Goffman called
the use of scientific methods in sociology as an attempt to ape natural sciences, and
instead developed his own Dramaturgical approach to study social phenomenon.

3. Non Positivists also refrain from formulation of generalized universal theories and
prediction of events.

4. Non Positivists also highlighted the impossibility of total objectivity and hence were
accommodative of subjectivity in their research. Eg. . Schultz in his work ‘The
Phenomenology of Social World’ focuses on reality based on subjectivity of individuals.

5. The non-positivistic methodology of Symbolic Interactionism focuses on interactions

between participating individuals to understand the social phenomenon. It considers
symbols, gestures and languages to interpret meaning of actions of individuals. Eg, Arlie
Hoschild studied the Emotional Labour of air hostesses wherein they are forced to smile
as a service on the airlines. Thus, non-positivistic methodologies are not entirely
scientific.
While non-positivistic methodologies may not adhere to the scientific principles, they can still be
considered scientific in the sense that they involve systematic, rigorous, and transparent approaches
to data collection and analysis. Eg, Irving Goffman employed participant observation in his study of
mental asylums in USA.

These methods provide valuable insights into complex social phenomena that may not be easily
observed through quantitative methods alone. Moreover, many researchers argue that combining
non positivistic methodologies and positivistic methodologies, known as mixed-methods research,
can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the society and its constituents.

Major theoretical strands of research methodology

1. What is the distinctiveness of the feminist method of social research? Comment.

Feminist method of social research refers to the approach keeping women’s experiences and
perspective at the focal point of research.

Distinctiveness of feminist method:

1. Critique of mainstream sociology for being ‘male-stream’, sexist and based on patriarchal
principles.

Eg- Goldthorpe’s class scheme allocates wives to the classes based on husband’s
occupation.

2. Feminist approach of interviewing uses a non-hierarchical, collaborative method. It

encourages participatory engagement, advising and helping the interviewees.

Eg- Ann Oakley interview of women during child birth.

3. Research results should be of value and can be used to improve the lives.

Eg- Research by DeVault on the burden of preparing food for family on women.

4. Intersectional topic of research

Eg- Brahmanical partriarchy by Uma chakravarti, Ecological feminism by Vandana

Shiva, Dalit Feminism.

5. Feminist standpoint Epistemology: women in different social position experience social life
differently, this gives unique insights on how society works as argued by Sandra Harding.

Feminist methodology have helped to create a gender inclusive and non-sexist body of
knowledge. It's vital to advance women's rights, address intersectionality, and create inclusive
societies.

Positivism and its critique

1. How far are sociologists justified in using positivist approach to understand social reality? Explain
with suitable illustrations. (2021) (20 marks)

With the advent of modernity and emergence of sociology, Positivist approach (Comte and Herbert
Spencer) took over the initial course of sociology. Positivist approach is application of scientific
methods emphasizing on the empirical observation as maintained in the natural science to understand
the social reality.

Positivists approach to understand the social reality

• Positivists rely on Hypothesis building as in the natural sciences.

Eg- Emile Durkheim’s study of Suicide: Hypothesis - suicide is based on the regulation
and integration of the individual with the society. This study significantly showed the
social reality of suicide rates into the society and can be applied in present world to
understand the suicide pattern.

• Positivists use scientific methods and apply them to understand the phenomenon or even of
the society.

Eg - Multivariate analysis or causal explanation of the study of suicide by Emile

Durkheim.

• Different type of research methods to quantify the dataset on larger and smaller sets of
people as per the requirement of the social research.

Eg - Questionaire, Census, Interview , Sampling etc. Every research method has unique
characterstic to learn about the social reality

• Positivists approach goes for the universalisation of the theory and understand the social
reality in totality.

Eg- Application of religion concept as given by Durkheim to the whole world as

universal form of religion ie. Grand framework. Similarily, Verstehen and ideal type
of Max Weber.

 Positivists approach aims for objectivity in the social research so that social reality cannot be
changed even if the researcher and the participants are changed.

Eg - Verstehen methods, used for inducing objectivity in the social research.

 Positivists approach used for quantification of social reality.

Eg- quantified data and example to show the relation of protestant ethics and
capitalism by Max Weber. Similarly, Jain community ethics or ideals give rise to
merchant class in Indian society.

 Value neutrality is also aimed by the Positivists approach by pure application of scientific
method at all level of social research.

However, Positivists approach was not the fool proof solution as later on with the expansion of
sociology subject matter and new perspectives it came into light that there is no complete gospel to
understand social reality.

Limitations of Positivists approach to understand social reality and use of Non Positivism

• Acknowledging subjectivity and value biasness in the social research.

Eg - biasness of the researcher is in the choice of the topic as per Weber.

 • Non positivists give emphasis to context in which the act or social phenomenon is being
studied.

Eg - Berger argued that the ‘facts do not fall from the sky and are developed in a
particular context.’

• Different perspectives and multiple truths for a single social reality as symbols may have
different meanings for everyone.

Eg- various perspectives to see the same reality - Feminists, Sub-altern, Post
Modernists, etc.

• There can be multiple relation between the variable known to be causal pluralism.

Eg- the integration and regulation variable with the suicide variable can have multiple
relation in different societies.

• Localisation of the social reality based on the social reality being case specific and not making
it universal as positivists approach would.

Eg - Ideal types itself is not universal it depends who is making the ideal type.

• Reflexivity also helps us understand social reality with the utmost linkage with the subject and
society and also helps in reducing the discrepancies in the data and quantifiable as human
emotions can’t be quantified as positivists would demand for.
Though there is no complete gospel to understand social reality, the best way to understand social
reality as far as possible to expand the sociological imagination. The combination of Positivistic
approach and Non Positivism will lead to holistic social reality and would cater to larger society.

Fact, value and objectivity

1. Is sociology a value-free science? Discuss. (2020) (10 marks)

Sociology is a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them.

Value in sociology is subjective disposition based on experience which are accepted on the
standards of desirability and undesirability.

Natural science is empirically verifiable and hence free from value bias, so was the thought of the
early sociologists to get the credibility of science to this new subject.

Sociology as value free science

• Sociological theory relies on variables and causal explanation which are purely value free. Eg
- Multivariate analysis of Emile Durkheim.

• Quantifiable nature in sociological research as in Study of suicide, Emile Durkheim took the
quantifiable data from the public records. Data is purely numerical and is value free.
 • Objective nature of sociology tends it to value free. Eg- Verstehen methods of Max Weber and
social facts of Durkheim provides.

• Universalisation makes it value free and takes it away from the local value bias in the
sociological theories .Eg- Parsons theory of social system.

Value biasness in sociology : Non Positivist schools

• Scope of subjectivity and value biasness in the sociology as wherever human is involved as a
subject in research the value bias is inevitable. Eg – choice of Topic of research -value biasness
of the sociologist.

• Qualitative nature of research is equally focused in the subject of sociology along with the
quantitative method. Eg - In sampling - stratified sampling and quota sampling are kind of
mixture of qualitative and quantitative research.

• Human cannot be treated as lab rats and society as a lab. Everything in society is contextual
and it should be understood in the context which generally includes values along with. Peter
Berger also said that ‘social facts do not fall from sky and they should be seen in context in
which they are recorded thus the values.’

• Reflexivity and Localisation also makes introduction of local values in the social research. For
example ideal types of bureaucracy of weber contains values of the society in the bureaucracy
as seen in comparison of bureaucracy of USA and India.

As seen on method of enquiry sociology tries to be value free as much as possible but to
understand the total social reality value also becomes necessary. Max Weber also agreed that
complete value freedom is not possible but it is duty of researcher to maintain objectivity as far
as possible.

2. Distinguish between fact and value in Weber’s Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism. (2018) (10
marks)

Fact is an empirically verifiable observation that can be agreed upon as tactical in similar manner
by every observer. They remain same in every situation.

Value in sociology is subjective disposition based on experience which are accepted on the
standards of desirability and undesirability.

Weber in The Protestant Ethics and spirit of Capitalism,1904 has tried to establish a theory on the
basis of connection between ethics of protestant or Calvinism and Capitalistic nature of the
society.

The ideal types of Protestant Ethics and Capitalism are shown in the figure below:
 Facts and Value distinction in Protestant Ethics and spirit of Capitalism

To understand society in totality Max weber also agreed that total value freedom is not possible
but the researcher should make sure to achieve objectivity in methodology and facts. The study
of Protestant ethics is an ideal construct of fact and value synthesis in sociology.

Non-positivist methodologies

1. How does the dramaturgical perspective enable our understanding of everyday life? (2023) (10
marks)

Erving Goffman in his 1959 book “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life” gave
Dramaturgical perspective. According to this perspective, individuals are seen as actors on a
stage, and social interactions are akin to performances.
The dramaturgical perspective enables our understanding of everyday life:
1. Roles and Role Performance: People play various roles in different social
situations. Role performance involves enacting these roles effectively, and it may require
adopting different personas depending on the context.
2. Impression Management: Just as actors manage their image on stage, individuals
engage in impression management in their daily lives.
E.g. Wearing formals for an interview.
 3. Audience and Aligning Actions: Individuals are seen as both performers and
audience members. They are aware of the expectations and judgments of others, and they
adjust their behaviour to align with these expectations.
4. Context and Setting: Just as the setting of a play influences the story and
characters' actions, the context and setting of social interactions play a crucial role in
shaping behavior.
E.g. Officer’s interaction with co-workers is different than their family.
5. Dramatic Realization: This is an idea that social life is like a series of scenes in a
play, each with its own script and actors. People move from one scene to another, adjusting
their behavior and presentation to fit the context and the roles they are playing.

Dramaturgical perspective brings into life the famous Shakespearean quote “All the world's
a stage and all the men and women merely players”

2. What are ethical issues that a researcher faces in making use of participant observation as a
method of collecting data? Explain. (2023) (10 marks)

Participant Observation is a research technique which emphasise the importance of

meanings, interpretations & interactions, where the phenomena under study is generally
observed from the public view.
Clifford Geertz states, Participant observation shines in capturing the "thick" layers of lived
experiences, social interactions, and hidden meanings, but it's not the sole path to "facts."
Ethical issues that a researcher faces in making use of participant observation as a method
of collecting data:
1. Informed Consent: One of the main ethical issues is obtaining informed consent from the
participants. However, non-disclosure of identity will result in a breach of trust.

Eg. Franz Boas on various Native American Tribes in USA chose not to obtain consent
2. Privacy and Confidentiality: Participant observation often involves observing intimate and
private aspects of people's lives.
Eg. William Whyte’s study of Italian American Gangster in Boston.
3. Exploitation: The researcher might benefit from the research, but the participants may
not receive any direct benefits. This can be seen as a form of exploitation.
4. Cultural Sensitivity: Observers may inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes or
misunderstand cultural nuances.
Eg. Margaret Mead's work in Samoa was criticized for allegedly misrepresenting the
sexual behaviors of Samoan adolescents due to cultural insensitivity.
5. Influence activities: The researcher's close association can result in him or her influencing
group activities. The researcher's presence can also have a Hawthrone effect.
6. Unethical behavior: In order to gain the trust of the covert group's researchers,
researchers may have to indulge in unethical or deviant activities.
Eg. Jack Young, in his study of marijuana users, confessed that he was offered
marijuana multiple times.
Tools like ‘member validation’, ‘triangulation’ and ‘testing the hypotheses’ generated in
follow up studies can be used to refine the findings of participant observation for
meaningful social research.

3. Do you think ethnomethodology helps us in getting reliable and valid data? Justify your answer.
(2021) (10 marks)

Ethnomethodology, a sociological perspective introduced by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960s,

is a qualitative research method that studies the ways people make sense of their world,
convey this understanding to others, and produce a mutually shared social order.
1. While the concepts of reliability and validity in the traditional sense are more often
associated with quantitative research, ethnomethodology can also provide valuable,
authentic, and credible insights into social phenomena.
2. The core idea of ethnomethodology is to uncover the tacit rules and procedures that
people use in their everyday interactions.
Eg. Garfinkel's well-known 'breaching experiments' involved instructing
participants to act as though they were ignorant of certain everyday social norms,
such as the norms governing a simple conversation. Observing the confusion and
attempts to re-establish normality that ensued when these norms were breached
provided valuable insights into the taken-for-granted assumptions underpinning
social interactions.
3. An ethnomethodological approach includes immersing oneself in the cultural events and
interacting with the participants to gain an insider's understanding of the event.
4. Ethnomethodology could uncover the unspoken rules, expectations, and norms that
structure the event, providing a rich, detailed understanding that a survey or experimental
study might miss.
5. While this type of data is not 'reliable' or 'valid' in the traditional quantitative sense (as it's
not generalizable or replicable due to the unique, context-specific nature of the insights
gained), it can be seen as 'trustworthy' and 'credible'. This depends, however, on the care
taken by the researcher in data collection, interpretation, and presentation.
6. Care must be taken to minimize researcher bias and ensure the findings accurately reflect
the participants' experiences and perspectives.
 Eg. Aaron Cicourel, argued that researchers need to consider the specific
circumstances and interpretations of individuals involved in social situations to fully
understand their actions and interactions.

However, the notion of 'reliability' and 'validity' need to be redefined in the context of
ethnomethodology, shifting towards notions like 'credibility,' 'authenticity,' and 'resonance.'

4. How does a researcher achieve objectivity in interpretative research? (2022) (10 marks)
Interpretive research is a qualitative research method on the assumption that social reality is not
singular or objective but is rather shaped by human experiences and social contexts, and is therefore
best studied within its socio-historical context.

A researcher can achieve objectivity in interpretative research through:

1. Use of scientific methods: Verstehen (Weber’s approach), training of researchers, enlarging of

samples and expanding the research in both temporal and spatial dimensions.

2. Reflexivity: Reflexivity refers to a researcher's process of reflecting on their own assumptions,

biases, and values and how these might impact the research process.

3. Hermeneutic circle: Interpretive interpretation should be an iterative process of moving back and
forth from pieces of observations (text) to the whole social phenomenon (context).

4. Ensuring dependability, confirmability, transferability.

Eg. The researcher may conduct an interview and code it before proceeding to the next
interview.

5. Triangulation: This is a strategy for improving the validity and reliability of research findings by
using different methods, data sources, investigators, or theoretical perspectives.

Eg. If a researcher is studying classroom interactions, they may observe the classroom,
interview teachers and students, and review curriculum documents.

Challenges such as value neutrality, value bias, reliability, human resource etc. still pertain and need
to be looked into.

Alfred Schulz' typifications, Garfinkek’s Ethnomethodology, Mats Alvesson’s (Post-Modernist)

reflexive pragmatism, Alvin Gouldner’s Reflexivity and Anthony Giddens idea of 'double
hermeneutics' can all enable a researcher achieve objectivity in interpretative research and further
enrich the stream.

5. What are shortfalls of positivist philosophy that gave rise to the non-positivist methods of
studying social reality? (2022) (20 marks)
Limitations of Positivists approach to understand social reality and use of Non Positivism

• Acknowledge the subjectivity and value biasness in the social research. For example the first
biasness of the researcher is in the choice of the topic. Max Weber acknowledged this and
accepted subjectivity at this step of social research.
 • Non positivists give emphasis to context in which the act or social phenomenon is being
studied. Berger argued that the facts do not fall from the sky and are developed in a particular
context.

• Different perspectives and multiple truths for a single social reality as symbols may have
different meanings for everyone. For example various perspectives to see the same reality -
Feminists, Sub altern, Post Modernists, etc.

• There can be multiple relation between the variable known to be causal pluralism. For
example the integration and regulation variable with the suicide variable can have multiple
relation in different societies.
• Localisation of the social reality based on the social reality being case specific and not making
it universal as positivists approach would. For example Ideal types itself is not universal it
depends who is making the ideal type.

• Reflexivity also helps us understand social reality with the utmost linkage with the subject and
society and also helps in reducing the discrepancies in the data and quantifiable as human
emotions can’t be quantified as positivists would demand for.

6. Phenomenological perspectives in sociology reject many of the assumptions of positivism.

Comment. (2020) (20 marks)
Phenomenological perspective: It means study of a phenomenon in society. From a
phenomenological perspective, the social world is a world of meanings and there is no objective
reality which lies beyond the meaning of an individual.

Early sociologists (Comte, Spencer) wanted sociology to be recognised as science and hence
Positivism school was as close to natural sciences. So the basic postulates of positivism were as
follows-

1. Empirical observation - system of data collection observation of that data to understand human
behaviour in society.

2. Scientific method - Hypothesis formulation, controlled experiments, and methods used in natural
sciences applied to the sociology - Herbert spencer applied the evolution of the society on the basis
of Darwin’s principle of evolution

3. Objectivity - to negate subjectivity, value bias and personal opinions in the sociological study.

4. Quantification - Quantification of human behaviour, taking human as data point, records basis
sociology

5. Universalisation and Hypothesis building - Formulation of grand frameworks like Parsons did for
social systems.

6. Human as subject in the study of society and social interactions between them

Phenomenological perspective rejected the assumptions of Positivism

1. Subjectivity: This school believes that sociological knowledge is derived on the basis of interaction
between researcher and participants and hence, includes subjectivity on the basis of researcher and
observer.

2. No objectivity is value-free: Mind and objectivity in sociology are never value-free and has been
proposed by Weber. Weber proposed that subjectivity is allowed in the initial point of research but
to maintain objectivity is the work of researcher.

Similarly Edmund Husserl says Mind is never value free.

3. Contextual Study: As per Peter Berger Social facts don’t fall from sky and are originated in some
context.

4. Meanings and Symbols: Phenomenological perspective says that men don’t merely react on
external stimuli and creates his own meaning of symbols and has consciousness of his own actions.

5. Applied Phenomenology: Alfred Schultz considers that Sociology is lived history which is
chronological. Our Value system and social structure are derived from lived history and also
comprises the lived history. He considers ‘typifications’ of phenomenon, that is the way
phenomenon is classified is according to previous experience.

6. Conscious Human beings: Men is not a lab rat as he has thoughts, feelings, meanings, intentions.
His actions depends on his internal consciousness.

7. Phenomenologists reject the causal explanations, generalisations of theory and use of any specific
method.

Phenomenology faded out due to its pure subjective nature but modern sociology effectively
combines both positivist approach (quantitative) and non-Positivist approach (qualitative) for better
understanding of sociology.

7. Discuss the importance of interpretative understanding of social phenomena and explain its
limitations. (2019) (20 marks)

Interpretative Method was first time used by Weber in ‘Methodology of the Social Sciences, 1949’.

According to this approach, the task of Sociology is to interpret the meanings attached by individuals
to their actions and understanding those meanings can only help in explaining cause and effect.

Importance of Interpretative understanding of social phenomenon:

1. Subjectivity of social phenomenon: Interpretative approach is based on the fact that individuals
have their own way of understanding social phenomenon by attaching subjective meaning to it.

2. Symbolic interactionism: This interpretative school focuses on symbols used in day to day
communications by persons in society. (GH Mead, Herbert Blumer)

Eg- Language as a symbol of interaction – Hindi, English.

3. Ideal types and Verstehen Method: Verstehen means understanding. Weber from Verstehen
wants the researcher to understand the meaning behind the action using reflexivity.

4. Analysis of individual in the society: As the concept given by G H Mead; I, Me, Self is developed
through play stage, game stage.
5. Qualitative methods employed in interpretative school: Recordings, Direct observations, case
studies, Biographies.

Limitations of Interpretative understanding of social phenomenon:

1. Researcher bias and subjectivity: Positivist criticise interpretative school for inculcating
subjectivity and bias in research and deviating from objectivity.

2. Overuse of qualitative methods: This hampers reliability and validity.

3. Relaying on interpreting individual actions more than understanding social structure.

4. Lacks universality of concepts. Focus on Individual actions and studies the concept on small scale.
Hence, unable to form grand frameworks and thus, lacks generalisations.
5. Interpretative school has zero reference to compare the studies as interpretation of researcher
differs when the new researcher takes the study.

Despite limitations interpretative understanding of social phenomenon became the foundation of

non-positivist school. It increased the scope of sociology from individuals to larger social structure,
from Quantitative to Qualitative research and hence made Sociology a perfect social science
encompassing the grand frameworks along with local and individual interpretations.