WEEK 7 – Network Devices and Hardware

Hub

A basic device that connects multiple computers in a LAN and forwards data it receives to all connected
devices. Works at OSI Layer 1 (Physical Layer). Inefficient because of collisions.

MSAU (Multistation Access Unit)

A hub-like device used in Token Ring networks. It manages the passing of the token that controls network
access.

Switch

A device that forwards data only to the specific device (port) that needs it using MAC addresses. Works at
OSI Layer 2 (Data Link Layer). Prevents collisions.

● Cut-through: Forwards packet immediately (fast, but no error checking).

● Store-and-forward: Checks packet for errors before forwarding (slower, reliable).

● Fragment-free: Forwards packet after first 64 bytes (balance of speed and reliability).

Bridge

Connects two or more LAN segments and filters traffic based on MAC addresses. Operates at Layer 2.

● Transparent Bridge: Learns addresses automatically.

● Source-route Bridge: Uses routing information from packets.

● Translational Bridge: Converts between different frame types (e.g., Ethernet ↔ Token
Ring).

Router

Forwards packets between networks using IP addresses. Works at Layer 3 (Network Layer).

● Static Routing: Manually configured routes.

● Dynamic Routing: Uses protocols like RIP, OSPF to adapt routes automatically.

Gateway

Acts as a translator between networks that use different protocols or architectures (e.g., email gateway,
VoIP gateway).

CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit)

A device that converts LAN digital signals to WAN signals (and vice versa) so that computers can use
leased lines.

NIC (Network Interface Card)

A hardware card inside a computer that provides a physical connection to a network. Contains a unique
MAC address.

ISDN Adapter

A digital device that connects a computer to an ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) line, used as a
dial-up alternative.
WAP (Wireless Access Point)

A device that provides wireless LAN connectivity to mobile and wireless devices.

Modem

Short for Modulator-Demodulator. Converts digital signals (computer) into analog (phone line) and vice
versa.

Transceiver

A “transmitter + receiver.” Used to connect one type of media to another (e.g., fiber optic to Ethernet).

Firewall

A security system that filters incoming and outgoing traffic based on rules, protecting networks from
unauthorized access.

MAC Address

A 48-bit unique hardware address assigned to each NIC. Two parts:

● OUI (Organizationally Unique Identifier): Identifies the manufacturer.

● Device ID: Unique to the device.

WEEK 8 – Network Layer

Functions

● Routing: Determines the best path for data packets.

● Logical Addressing: Assigns IP addresses to devices for unique identification.

● Internetworking: Connects multiple networks into a larger internetwork.

● Fragmentation: Breaks large packets into smaller ones to fit network MTU (Maximum Transmission
Unit).

Forwarding vs Routing

● Forwarding: Moving packets from input to output interface of a router.

● Routing: Finding the overall best path across networks.

Network Services

● Guaranteed delivery: Ensures packet reaches its destination.

● Bounded delay: Delivery within a predictable timeframe.

● In-order delivery: Packets arrive in the same sequence sent.

● Security services: Protect data (e.g., encryption, authentication).

IP Addressing (Classful)

● Class A: 0–127, ~16 million hosts. Used for very large networks.

● Class B: 128–191, up to 65,000 hosts. Medium-sized networks.

● Class D: 224–239, used for multicast.

● Class E: 240–255, reserved for experimental use.

Protocols

● ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Converts IP address → MAC address.

● RARP (Reverse ARP): Converts MAC address → IP address.

● ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Sends error messages (e.g., destination unreachable,
time exceeded). Used by ping.

● IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): Manages multicast group membership.

WEEK 9 – Transport Layer

Functions

● Provides end-to-end communication between applications.

● Ensures data is delivered reliably, correctly, and in order.

Services

● Error Control: Ensures data integrity.

● Sequence Control: Ensures data is received in the correct order.

● Loss Control: Retransmits lost packets.

● Duplication Control: Removes duplicate packets.

● Flow Control: Prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.

● Multiplexing: Multiple applications share the same connection using ports.

Protocols

● UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

○ Connectionless, fast, lightweight.

○ No guarantee of delivery.

○ Used for streaming, VoIP, online gaming.

● TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

○ Connection-oriented, reliable.

○ Uses sequence numbers, acknowledgements, flow control.

○ Provides full-duplex communication.

○ Used for web (HTTP/HTTPS), email (SMTP, IMAP), file transfers (FTP).

WEEK 10 – Application Layer

● Provides services directly to end-users and applications.

● Manages communication between software applications and lower layers.

Services

● Network Virtual Terminal: Allows remote login (e.g., Telnet).

● File Transfer and Management (FTAM): Moving, accessing, and updating files over a network.

● Email Services: Sending and receiving messages.

● Directory Services: Mapping resources (like DNS).

● Authentication: Verifying user identity.

Architectures

● Client-Server: One central server provides services to multiple clients.

● Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Devices act as both client and server. Used in file sharing.

Protocols

● DNS (Domain Name System): Converts domain names into IP addresses.

● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Transfers files between systems using two connections (control +
data).

● Telnet: Allows remote login using a virtual terminal.

● SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Sends emails from one server to another.

WEEK 11 – Computer Network Security

Goals

● Confidentiality: Prevent unauthorized access to data.

● Integrity: Prevent data from being altered.

● Availability: Ensure resources are always accessible.

● Authentication: Verify identity of sender/receiver.

● Non-repudiation: Prevent denial of actions by sender.

Encryption

● Symmetric (Secret Key): One key for both encryption & decryption (e.g., AES, DES).

● Asymmetric (Public Key): Uses public + private key (e.g., RSA).

Threats

● Viruses: Attach to programs/files and spread.

● Trojans: Disguised as legitimate software.

● Ransomware: Encrypts files and demands payment.

● Phishing: Fraudulent emails/websites tricking users.

● Denial of Service (DoS/DDoS): Overload system to make it unavailable.

● Spoofing & Sniffing: Fake identity or intercept data.

Security Tools

● Firewalls: Block/allow traffic based on rules.

● Antivirus software: Detect and remove malware.

● IDS/IPS (Intrusion Detection/Prevention): Monitor network activity.

● VPN (Virtual Private Network): Encrypts communication over public networks.

Security Protocols

● SSL/TLS: Secure data between browser and server.

● IPSec: Secures IP packets.

● HTTPS: Secure version of HTTP.

● SSH (Secure Shell): Encrypted remote login.