TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. WORKING CONDITION AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS.........1

B. PRESENT, ANALYSE PLANS AND CHOOSE PLAN................2
I. Method of drive wheel..................................................................2
II. The method of steering mechanism............................................2
III. Method of power assist..............................................................4
IV. Select plan.................................................................................5
C. GENERAL LAYOUT DESIGN..............................................6
I. General components of the steering system................................6
II. General parameters for the steering system...............................6
III. General parameters for the trapezoidal mechanism..................6
IV. General parameters of steering mechanism (rack and pinion
type)...............................................................................................7
V. Design of steering shaft parameter and layout...........................8
D. TECHNICAL DESIGN........................................................8
I. Steering dynamic calculation.......................................................8
1. Building the theoretical curve..................................................8
2. Building the realistic curve.......................................................9
3. Consider the static turning resistance....................................12
4. Consider length of rack..........................................................15
5. Calculation of the transmisstion mechanism of the steering
system........................................................................................15
6. Steering drive durability.........................................................19
E. INSPECTION OF CURRENT REGULATIONS, STANDARDS
(QCVN 09:2015/BGTVT)....................................................22
F. DESIGN OF TECHNOLOGY..............................................22
G. ECONOMICS OF DESIGN................................................22
REFERENCES....................................................................24
A. WORKING CONDITION AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
 Technical requirements:
 As a vehicle turns, its wheels may slip, causing tire wear and increased
fuel usage  The steering system is designed to manage the dynamics
of turning.
 When driving straight  The steering system maintains the vehicle’s
stability and direction
 The steering wheel’s revolutions are matched to human ergonomic
standards, and the driving wheels’ maximum turning angle is
approriate to the vehicle’s design requirements  Calculation of
steering transmission ratio must be reasonable.
 Forces from the driver, which apply on the steering wheel, correspond
with human ergonomic  the steering system should include power
assistance to ease the driver’s effort when the force acting on steering
wheel is large.
 In reality, the applying force on the steering wheel is required to have
variable steering ratio  Steering system need to have the mechanism
to adjust this ratio.
 When vehicles are in motion, the forces that impact the drive wheel
also have an effect on the steering wheel  The forces and torques
within the steering system can transfer in the opposite direction – from
the drive wheel back to the steering wheel.
 Order requirements (customers or investors).
 General requirements: (refer to Chapter 1), durability, stability, high
product life; easy to manufacture, easy maintenance and repair;
available for spare parts; beautiful design and low cost; environmental
friendliness...
 Satisfy the current regulations on automotive design.

1
B. PRESENT, ANALYSE PLANS AND CHOOSE PLAN
I. Method of drive wheel
 Front wheel drive
 Rear wheel drive
 Four wheel drive
 All wheel drive
II. The method of steering mechanism
 Worm and sector:

Worm and sector steering mechanism

This type of mechanism is used in some large trucks because it has
the ability to create high transmission ratios but its efficiency is low:
forward efficiency - 0.5; reverse efficiency - 0.4
Transmission ratio:
Z2
ic =
Z1
In which,
Z2: number of sector gear
Z1: number of teeth of worm gear
 Worm and roller:

Worm and roller steering mechanism

2
 This is a relatively common steering mechanism for passenger cars
and light commercial vehicles. The large contact area between the gears
reduces stress on surfaces, thereby reducing wear. Additionally, the
applied load is distributed among the threaded paths, increasing their
load-bearing capacity. The friction within the mechanism is rolling
friction, resulting in minimal frictional losses (forward efficiency - 0.8,
reverse efficiency - 0.7)
Transmission ratio:
2 π r0
ic =
tZ 1
In which,
r0: worm radius,
t: worm pitch
Z1: number of threaded path of worm
 Recirculating ball type:

Recirculating ball steering mechanism

This is a type of steering mechanism commonly used, even for large
commercial vehicles. Inside the ball nut rack with the screw shaft are
steel ball bearings with guide tubes; these steel ball bearings transform
sliding friction into rolling friction, allowing for achieving high efficiency
up to 0.85 (forward efficiency - 0.87, reverse efficiency - 0.82).
Transmission ratio:
2 πr 0
ic =
t
In which,
r0: sector gear radius
t: gear pitch
3
4
  Rack and pinion:

Rack and pinion steering mechanism

This is the most commonly used steering mechanism for passenger
cars and light commercial vehicles. It translates the rotational motion
from the steering wheel directly into linear motion of the rack, thereby
directly affecting the directional wheels of the vehicle.
The rack and pinion steering mechanism has high efficiency in both
directions of steering input from the steering wheel. Variable ratio could
be integrated.
It has fewer components than most other steering mechanisms. This
makes it very easy to maintain and repair.
III. Method of power assist
 Hydraulic power steering (HPS): is a power steering system that uses
hydraulic pressure to assist the driver in turning the wheels via a
hydraulic cylinder.

Hydraulic power steering (HPS)

5
  Electric power steering (EPS) system: reduces driver’s effort when
turning the steering wheel of a vehicle by using a power steering
motor to provide assist torque that depends on the control current.

Electric power steering (EPS)

 Combined power steering: refers to a power steering system that
integrates both hydraulic and electric power steering technologies.
In such systems, a vehicle may have a combination of hydraulic
power steering (HPS) and electric power steering (EPS) components
to provide steering assistance

Original BMW Exchange hydro steering gear Servotronic 7er G11

IV. Select plan
 Passenger cars, light trucks: Choose the rack and pinion because the
structure is simple, low cost.
 Medium and large trucks: Choose box type.
6
 Depending on the specific driving conditions, select the steering
gearbox with variable or fixed ratio.

7
C. GENERAL LAYOUT DESIGN
I. General components of the steering system

II. General parameters for the steering system

1. w: track width
2. lr: rack length
3. Dt: tire overall diameter
4. wt: tire width
5. rsw: Steering wheel
radius

III. General parameters for the trapezoidal mechanism

 Correct trapezoidal machanism parameters can help satisfy the
rotational kinematics of the vehicle and reduce lateral slip of tires
during steering.
 Trapezoidal corner Φ: decide the overall shape of the steering
trapezoidal.

8
 Parameters of steering trapezoidal
After choosing the initial parameters for the steering trapezoidal, we
calculate the exact value of the trapezoidal:

Specific parameters of steering trapezoidal

IV. General parameters of steering mechanism (rack and pinion

type)
1. dp: pitch circle diameter
2. sr: the displacement path of
the rack

9
V. Design of steering shaft parameter and layout

Steering shaft orientation

β: Deflection angle between the shafts
This angle will decide the arrangement of the steering column in the
vehicle, allows the driver to steer the steering wheel more comfortable.

D. TECHNICAL DESIGN
I. Steering dynamic calculation
1. Building the theoretical curve
To ensure the rotational kinematics of the guiding wheels, we must
follow the Ackerman equation:
B
cot α −cot β= (1.1)
L
In which:
α: Steering angle of the outer guide wheel, o
β: Steering angle of the inner guide wheel, o
B: Front trackwidth, m
L: Wheelbase, m
To accurately satisfy the above expression, the steering gear must
have 18 joints and a complex structure. Therefore, in reality, people
often use simpler mechanisms that still ensure an approximation of the
above formula, of which the most commonly used structure is the Danto
steering trapezoid. Experiences shows that if the parameters of the
steering trapezoid are selected appropriately, formula 1.1 can be
satisfied.

10
 Figure 1.1 Rotational kinematics diagram.
Determine the maximum steering angle of the inner guide wheel max:
−1 L
β max =tan
B (1.2)
Rmin −
2
With Rmin = 4.9 m = 4900 mm, we have:
−1 2550 o
β max =tan =31.48
1470
4900−
2
From equation 1.1, we have:
−1 L
α =tan (1.3)
B+ L cot β
Subtitute the value of L,B into equation (1.3) we have the value of
corresponding α:
−1 2550
α =tan (1.4)
1470+2550 cot β

2. Building the realistic curve

a) When travelling forward:
From the steering diagram in Figure 2.1, we can calculate the
relationship between the parameters according to the following
expressions:
X =B−2(m cos θ+ p cos γ ) (2.1)
In which,
y−msin θ
sin γ = (2.2)
p
Besides: sin2 γ +cos 2 γ =1

11
 1 2 (2.3)
⇒ cos γ =√ 1−sin γ =
2
p
√ p −( y−msin θ )
2

Figure 2.1 Diagram of steering trapezoid when the vehicle goes straight
Subtitute equation (2.3) into (2.1) we have
X =B−2(m cos θ+ √ p − ( y−m sinθ ) )
2
2
(2.4)
When the car turns with different turning radius and the relationship
between  and  remains the same as the above formula, the DanTo
steering trapezoid cannot be completely satisfied.
However, we can choose a trapezoidal structure to deviate from the
theoretical relationship within the allowable limit, that is, the deviation
between the actual and theoretically allowed turning angle is largest at
large turning angles, but cannot exceed 1 o.
b) When turning:
Figure 2.2 is a diagram of the steering trapezoid when the vehicle is
turning. When the left wheel turns an angle  and the right wheel turns
an angle , at this time the right wheel’s side arm is at an angle ( - )
with the horizontal and the left wheel is ( + ). We have the relationship
of the numbers according to the following relationship:

12
 Figure 2.2 Diagram of steering trapezoid when the vehicle is turning.
We have:
AD=B−[ m cos ( θ−β )+ p cos γ ' + X ] (2.5)
With :
1
cos γ =
'
p
√p −[ y −msin ( θ−β ) ]
2 2

In ∆ACD we have:
2 2
A C =A D + C D = A D + y
2 2 2
(2.6)
In ∆ABC we have:
2 2 2
BC = A C + A B −2 AB . AC . cos ψ
(2.7)
AB=m ; BC = p
From equation (2.5) and (2.6), we have:
A C + A B −B C ( A D + y ) +m − p
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos ψ = =
2 AB . AC 2 m√ A D + y
2 2

( )
2 2 2 2
−1 A D + y +m − p
⇒ ψ =cos (2.8)
2 m√ A D + y
2 2

We also have:
tan φ=
CD
=
AD AD
y
⟹ φ=tan
−1 y
AD ( ) (2.9)
θ+ α=ψ + φ ⟹ α=ψ+ φ−θ (2.10)
From equations (2.8) and (2.9) we subtitute into equation (2.10) we have
the relation between α, β:

( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
−1 y −1 y +m + A D − p
α =tan + cos −θ (2.11)
AD 2 m√ A D + y
2 2

From equation (2.4) and (2.5) we have length of AD:

13
 AD=2 [ m cos θ+ √ p 2−( y−msin θ ) ] −[ mcos ( θ−β )+ √ p2− ( y−m sinθ ) ]
2 2

 - angle between steerign trapzoid and the horizontal:  =78

m - trapezoid side lever length m = 180 (mm).
y - Distance between horizontal lever and front axle in steering trapezoiy:
y = 182 (mm)
p - Length of connecting rod on steering trapezoidal side. p = 250 (mm).
From the equations (1.4) and (2.5) we can buid the theoretical and
actual trapezoidal characteristic curves corresponding to each value of
the angle  = (0o, 5o, ... , 30o). We take the angle α according to the
design vehicle. With  = 780. We have the corresponding value of α and
β:

(o) t (o ) AD a (o ) α (o)
287.3536
0 0 0 0
832
4.761065 272.1508 4.923947 0.162881
5
605 807 145 541
9.093492 257.3486 9.657270 0.563778
10
464 007 957 492
13.06688 243.0594 14.20687 1.139989
15
928 976 832 044
16.74375 229.3923 18.56755 1.823798
20
973 2 776 031
20.17913 216.4510 22.72461 2.545483
25
633 834 973 397
23.42118 204.3342 26.65584 3.234658
30
521 784 404 826

t : theoretical  angle; a : actual  angle;  :  deviation

Based on the parameters in the table above, we can draw a graph of
the theoretical and actual steering trapezoidal kinematic characteristics
on the same coordinate system.

14
3. Consider the static turning resistance
The force applied to the steering wheel of a car will reach its
maximum value when turning the car in static state. At that moment, the
steering wheel torque on both guiding wheels M C will be equal to the sum
of the moments: M 1 due to the rotational resistance, M 2 from the wheel
sliding on the road surface, and M 3 caused by stabilizing the steering
wheels.
1
M c =2 ( M 1+ M 2 + M 3 ) (3.1)
η
With is the efficiency in terms of friction loss at rotational cam and joint
in steering mechanism ¿ 0 .5 ÷ 0.7, then choose ¿ 0 . 7.

15
  Resistance torque M1


a
B

Bt

Figure 2.5 – Guilding wheel layout

Resistance torque is determined by formula: M 1=Gbx fa
While:
Gbx - Weight affect on one guilding wheel
G1 8360
Gbx = = =4180(N )
2 2
a - arm of guilding wheel a = 0.03 (m)
f - rolling resistance coefficient in dry and asphalt conditon f =
0.015
So: M 1=4180× 0.015 ×0.03=1.881(Nm)
 Resistance torque M2 due to side slip of wheel:
In Figure 2.6, when a lateral force Y acts on the wheel, the contact
surface between the tire and the road will be displaced with respect to
the wheel axis. The reason for this deviation is the sidewall elasticity of
the tire. The location of the force Y will be at a distance from the
projected image.

16
 Figure 2.6 – Lateral force apply on wheel diagram
When the steering moment acts on the wheel, a lateral force Y will
appear at the contact patch between the wheel and the road surface.
Due to the elastic modulus properties of the tire, the force Y causes the
contact patch to deviate from the wheel axis by a distance x to the rear.
This distance x is acknowledged as half of the contact patch’s center-to-
outer-edge distance, according to the following formula:
x=0.5 √ r 2−r 2bx
While:
r – radius of wheel, r =(B+d /2)
r bx – working radius of wheel
With tyre size: 185/60R15
B is height of tyre: B=0.6 × 185=111(mm)
d is diameter of tyre: d=15(inch)=381(mm)

(
r = 111+
381
2 )
=301.5(mm)

We have:
r bx =0.96 r
x=0.5 √ r −( 0.96 r ) =0.14 r =42.21 ( mm )=42.21 ×10 (m)
2
So: 2 −3

We have friction moment between tyre and road:

M 2=Gbx φx
With φ is lateral friction coefficient, φ=0.85
−3
So: M 2=4180× 0.85 × 42.21×10 =143.97 (Nm)
 M3 is the moment generated by the wheel and kingpin
angles, is relatively complex to calculate. Therefore, in calculations, M 3
can be replaced by a coefficient λ . In this case, the steering wheel torque
on one leading wheel is calculated as follows:
17
 M =(M 1+ M 2 )λ instead of M =(M 1+ M 2 + M 3 ) as in Equation 3.1.
With λ=1.07 ÷ 1.15 choose λ=1.1 hence:
M =(1.881+143.97)× 1.1=160.44 (Nm)
Substituting to Equation 3.1, we can determine the steering wheel torque
on both guiding wheels:
160.44
M c =2 × =458.4(Nm)
0.7
 Determine the maximum force acting on the steering
wheel
When steering in the case of a stationary car, the force applied to
the steering wheel to overcome the resistance to turning acting on the
leading wheels is at its maximum. The maximum force applied to the
steering wheel is determined by the formula:
Mc
F max=
Ri c i d ηth

While:
Mc – turning resistance moment: Mc = 458.4 (Nm)
R – steering wheel radius: R = 0.20 (m)
ic – steering mechanism ratio : ic = 19.5
ηth – efficiency of trapezoid steering mechanism ηth = 0.65
id – ratio of steering wheel id = 1
Therefore:
458.4
F max= =180.82( N)
0.2 ×19.5 ×1 ×0.65

4. Consider length of rack

According to steering mechanism, when guilding wheel turn β max =40 o
the rack transition X:
X 1 =mcos (θ−β ) + p cos γ −(m cos θ+ p cos γ ) (4.1)
While:
1
cos γ = × √ p −¿ ¿
2
p
Replace into Equation 4.1:
X 1 =180 cos ( 78 °−31.48 ° )+ √ 250 2−¿ ¿ ¿
Rack length: L  2X1 = 2×86.34 = 172.68 (mm).
So the working length of the rack measured along the length of the
smaller shaft must be half of the length (L = 180 mm). Therefore, the
rack is long enough for the car to turn smoothly without any interference.

18
5. Calculation of the transmisstion mechanism of the steering
system
5.1. Determine the diameter of pitch circle of pinion gear
To determine the diameter of pitch circle of pinion gear, we can
consider the following methods:
- Preselect the pitch diameter of the pinion gear to calculate whether
the corresponding rotation is appropriate. This means that for a certain
number of rotations n , the rack must travel a distance X1 = 86.34 (mm).
- Preselect the number of rotations of the steering wheel and then
determie the pitch diameter of the pinion gear. For a rack-and-pinion
steering mechanism, the number of rotations of the steering wheel is
also the number of rotations of the pinion. Based on reference vehicles,
choose the number of rotations in one direction of the steering wheel
corresponding to the wheel rotation, which is n=1.5 turns.
From the formula:
X 1 =2 πRn (5.1.1)
We get
X1 86.34
R= = =9.16 (mm) (5.1.2)
2 π × 1.5 2 π ×1.5
 Choose R = 9 (mm)
5.2. Determine the geometrical parameters of pinion gear
Determine the number of teeth
mn Z (5.2.1)
Dc =
cos β
in which:
Dc :Pitch diameter: Dc =2 R=2× 9=18 (mm)
mn : Normal module: choose mn=2.5
β: Helix angle: preliminary choosing β=12 °
From the Equation 5.2.1, we get the number of teeth:
D c cos β 18 cos 12°
Z= = =7
mn 2.5
With number of teeth Z=7, recalculate helix angle:
mn Z 2.5 ×7
cos β= = =0.9722 ⇒ β ≈ 13.54 °
Dc 18
Transverse module: mt =mn /cos β=2.5 /0.9722=2.57
Minimal number of teeth: Z min=17 cos3 β=17 × ( 0.9722 )3=15.62
Choose Z min=16
With Z min=16 >Z =7, pitting will occur and adjustment is required, φ Σ=0.
Determine adjustment coefficient φ br with the formula:
19
 16−Z 16−7
φ= = =0.5625
16 16
Then, we can calculate the parameters of rack and pinion transmission:
Diameter of addendum circle:
Dd =Dc +2 mn ( 1+φ )=18+2 ×2.5 ( 1+0.5625 )=25.81(mm)
Diameter of dedendum circle:
Df =Dc −2 mn ( 1.25+φ ) =18−2 ×2.5 ( 1.25−0.5625 )=15.81(mm)
Choosing meshing angle α =20 ° .
Pitch diameter:
D0=D c cos α=18 cos 20 °=16.91 ( mm )
Teeth depth:
h=( h 'f +h'f' ) mn=( 1+1.25 ) 2.5=5.625 ( mm )
h' =( f ' +φ ) m=( 1+ 0.5625 ) ×2.5=3.9 ( mm )
Face width:
π mn 2.5
S= +2 φ mn tan α =π × +2 × 0.5625× 2.5 × tan20 ° =4.95 ( mm )
2 2
5.3. Determine the parameters of rack
Diameter of rack at the most critical section:

d=

in which:
√
3 Mx
0.2[τ x ]
(5.3.1)

[τ x ]: Allowed contact stress at the most critical section,

choose [ τ x ]=3 ×10 8 N /m2
Mx : Moment that cause torsional stress on rack, equals
resistance moment when steering from wheels:
M x =M c =458.4 Nm
Subtituting to Equation 5.3.1, we get:

Choose d=20 mm
Mx
d=
0.2[τ x ]√3
=3
458.4
0.2 ×3 ×10√8
=0.0197(m)

Length of working range of rack:

L=2 X 1=2× 86.34=172.68 ( mm )
On the other hand, we have
t1 Z π dc L
d c= ⟹ Z= =
π t1 t1
In which,
t π mn π × 2.5
t 1= = = =8.09
cos β cos β cos 14 °
Therefor,
20
 172.68
Z= =21.34
8.09
So we choose Z=22 teeths for rack.
Adjustment coefficient of rack:
φ tr =|φ Σ −φbr|=|0−0.5625|=0.5625
Pitch diameter of rack:
Dc =D d−2 m (1.25−φ )=25.81−2 ×2.5 ( 1.25−0.5625 )
¿ 22.37 ( mm )
Addendum diameter of rack:
Dd =D=22.37 mm
Teeth depth of rack:
h=( f ' + f ' ' ) mn=( 1+1.25 ) × 2.5=5.625 ( mm )

5.4. Calculation of strength of rack and pinion mechanism

For the rack and pinion mechanism, we need to guarantee all teeth
are high strength.
 Consider the force apply on rack and pinion
Tangential force on pinion:
F t=F max i c =180.82 ×19.5=3526 (N )
Centrifugal force:
Ft tan α 3526 × tan 20 °
F r= = =1322.647(N )
cos β cos 14 °
Longitudinal force:
F a=F t tan β=3526 × tan 14 °=879.131(N )
 Material check
During the operation of the gear shaft, the rack is subjected to
bending stresses at the contact and bears the load and impact from the
road surface. Therefore, it often leads to the phenomenon of crack
initiation at the tooth root. This significantly affects the reliability and
service life of the steering mechanism. To meet the working
requirements of the steering system, the material used for the gear shaft
and rack is improved XH steel.
[ σ ch ]=700 MPa
[ σ b ]=1000 MPa
HB=260 ÷ 290
Fatigue contact limit:
σ HLim=2 HB +70=2 ×260+ 70=590( MPa)
Allowing contact stress:

21
 [ σ H ]= ( )
σ HLim
s
Z R Z V K F K XH
(5.4.1)

While:
s = 1: safety factor
ZR = 0.95: friction factor
ZV = 1.1: velocity factor
KXH = 1: pinion size factor
KF = 1: lubrication factor
Substituting to Equation 5.4.1, we obtain:

[ σ H ]= ( 5901 ) 0.95× 1.1× 1× 1=560 , 5(MPa)

Bending fatigue limitation:
[ σ FLim ]=σ 0F K FL K FC (5.4.2)
Choose KFL = 1; with 2-way-rotate mechanism, choose K FC = 0.7
[ σ Flim ]=360× 1× 0.7=327 ( MPa )
Allowable bending moment:
[ σ F ]=σ Flim Y R Y S K XF S F=327× 1.03 ×1.7=198.48(MPa)
While: YR = 1; KXF = 1
SF =1.7: safety factor
YS = 1.03: modulus factor
 Bending moment check
Teeth testing for contact strength:

σ H=
dω √
Z M Z H Z ∑ 2T K Hα K Hγ K Hβ ( u+1 )
bω u
With: Z M =175 (MPa)(For steel tooth shafts)
(5.4.3)

ZH=
√ √ 2cos β 2 cos 14 °
sin 2 α sin ( 2 ×20 ° )
=1.74

Z ∑=
√ √ 1
εα
=
1
1.24
=0.898

Where ε α is the horizontal coincidence coefficient, ε α is calculated

according to the following formula:

[
ε α = 1.88−3.2
( Z1 + Z1 )] cosβ =[1.88−3.2( 17 + 221 )] cos 14 °=1.24
1 2

γ H bω d ω
K H =1+
γ
2T KH KH α β

With: γ H ¿ 1.1 ; bω=φd d ω=0.6 ×22.37=13.42

1.1× 13.42× 22.37
⇒ K H =1+ =1.16
γ
2× 944.76 ×1 ×1.08
Substituting the parameters into formula (5.4.3), we get:
22
σ H=
22.37 √
175 ×1.74 × 0.898 2× 994.76 ×1 ×1.16 ×1.08 × ( 22.81+ 1 )
13.42× 22.81
So: σ H =170.20 ( MPa )< [ σ H ]=560.5 ( MPa )
=170.20(MPa)

 Satisfy contact condtion.

6. Steering drive durability

6.1 Check steering shaft durability
Drive shaft dimensions (see figure 2.7)
- Inner diameter: Dtl = 25 (mm)
- Outside diameter: dtl = 17 (mm) Figure 6.1.1
The steering shaft is made of steel pipe, the material for the steering
shaft is C35 steel, not heat treated, with allowable contact stress: [x] =
50  80 MPa.
Torsional stress generated by the force on the steering wheel:
M x Pl . R v
τ x= = max

Wx Wx
where: Wx – is the anti-torsion moment of the calculated section
4 4
Dtl −d tl
W x =0 , 2.
Dtl
Substituting numbers into the formula we have:
468,734.0 , 2
τ x= 4 4
=38 , 16 ( MPa ) ⇒ τ x <[τ x ]
0,025 −0.017
0.2 .
0,025
Conclusion: The steering shaft ensures durability.

6.2. Checking durability of ball joint

Diameters:
- Distance from the center of the bridge to the mounting position:
e N =23 (mm)
- Diameter at the calculated mounting position: d N =18 (mm)
- Diameter of ball joint: Dc =28 (mm)
- Diameter of bearing surface with ball joint’s cushion: k = 16 (mm)
Materials: bridge piers are made of 15HM cementitized steel, with
surface heat treatment to increase wear resistance, with:
- The allowable stamping stress is: [ σ cd ]=35(MPa)
- Allowable bending stress at the clamp position: [ σ u ]=300(MPa)
- Allowable shear stress at the clamp position: [ τ ]=80(MPa)

23
 Ball joints are tested according to compression stress at the working
position and bending and shear strength at the clamp position.
The largest force acting on the ball joint is the maximum force acting
on the horizontal pull rod N = 7994,47 (N).
Force diagram: see below.

- Check the stamping stress at the working surface of the ball joint:
N
σ cd =
Fc
With:
F c - contact area between the sphere and the rotor pad.
In actual working practice, the working area accounts for 2/3 of the
surface of the ball joint, so the contact bearing surface accounts for
1/2.2/3=1/3 of the ball joint surface.
We have:
1 2
F c = . π . Dc
3
Diameter of ball joint: Dc =28 (mm)
7994 , 47
⇒ σ cd = =31 , 42 ( MPa ) <[σ cd ]
1
.3 , 14.0,0282
3
So the ball joint bolt satisfies the condition of stamping at the working
surface.
- Test according to bending strength:

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Check the bending strength of the ball joint bolt at the mounting
position.
Bending stress at the clamp position:
N eN
σ uc=
Wu
where: W u – bending moment of the calculated section, we have:
3
W u =0 , 1.d N
Substituting, we have:
7994 , 47.0,023
σ uc= 3
=273 ,69 ( MPa )
0 , 1.0,018
⇒ σ uc < [ σ uc ] → Ball joint bolt ensure bending strength at the most dangerous
locations.
- Check according to shear strength:
Check the ball joint at the mounting position.
Shear stress at the mounting position:
N
τ c=
Fc
While:
2
π . Dc
F c=
4
Deduce:
N 6939 ,8
τ c= = =27,272 ( MPa )
F c 3 ,14.0,028
4
⇒ τ c< [ τ c ]
→ Ball joint satisfies shear stregth conditions at the most dangerous
cross section.
Conclusion: Ball joints are durable enough during work.
E. INSPECTION OF CURRENT REGULATIONS, STANDARDS (QCVN
09:2015/BGTVT)
 Make sure the vehicle can change the direction accurately, controls
safety at different speed range and load following the technical
allowance of the vehicle.
 The guide wheels must ensure that the vehicle is able to maintain a
straight direction of motion when running straight and return to the
straight direction of motion when no torque is applied to the
steering wheel (when not turning).
 When operating, the steering system’s moving mechanisms must
not collide with any part of the vehicle such as the frame or shell.

25
  When turning, the steering wheel rim does not stuck on the driver’s
clothes and equipment while driving.
 When turning the steering wheel to the right and left, there should
not be a significant difference in the force acting on the steering
wheel.
 The play angle of steering wheel:
 For the passenger car which is up to 12 seats, including driver, and
the truck has its weight up to 1500 kg, the play angle is smaller
than 10 degrees.
 For others, the play angle is smaller than 15 degrees.
 The lateral slip of guide wheel ≤ 5 mm/m
 The minimum turning radius according to the vehicle’s outer front
wheel track is no more than 12m.

F. DESIGN OF TECHNOLOGY
 The process of product manufacturing technology, including stages
of production, machines and equipment used, and the technical
skill of workers.
 The process of product inspection, detailing both in-process and
finished product inspections, testing tools, and inspector
qualifications.
 The importance of paying attention to whether domestic
manufacturing technologies can meet certain requirements.
 The need to take advantage of details or clusters available, and
having a stable supplier for large quantities.
 The role of technology design as a form of direct feedback for
technical design improvements.

G. ECONOMICS OF DESIGN
 Costs of purchasing materials, supplies, spare parts
 Depreciation costs of factories, machines, types of equipment, tools
 Costs of electricity, water, environment
 Labor costs of workers, technicians, officers, and managers
 Costs of project management, advertisements, marketing, selling,
sales promotions, shipping, and distribution of products
 Cost of warranties, after-sales
 Taxes

26
THE END.

27
 REFERENCES

[1] Nguyễn Hữu Cẩn, Phan Đình Kiên, Thiết kế và tính toán ôtô máy
kéo – Tập 1, Tập 2 và Tập 3, Nhà xuất bản Đại học và Trung học
chuyên nghiệp, Hà nội, 1984.
[2] Reza N. Jazar, Vehicle Dynamics Theory and Application-2nd ed.
[3] Nguyễn Hữu Lộc, Cơ sở thiết kế máy, Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc
gia [Link].
[4] Phạm Xuân Mai, Thiết kế ô tô, Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia
[Link].
[5] Chuyên ngành Kỹ thuật Ô tô và Xe máy hiện đại, Tủ sách Nhất
Nghệ Tinh.
[6] Bosch, Automotive Handbook, Wiley, 2019.

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