The University of Sydney

MATH2022 Linear and Abstract Algebra

Semester 1 Week 2 Longer Solutions 2019

 
2 4
1. (a) 2A = in each case.
0 6
     
6 −3 6 4 6 10
(b) −B = over R, over Z7 , and over Z13 .
−4 −1 3 6 9 12
     
−5 5 2 5 8 5
(c) A + B = over R, over Z7 , and over Z13 .
4 4 4 4 4 4
     
7 −1 0 6 7 12
(d) A − B = over R, over Z7 , and over Z13 .
−4 2 3 2 9 2
   
2 1 8 1 1
(e) A = over R and Z13 , and over Z7 .
0 9 0 2
   
2 5 2 5
(f) AB = over R and Z13 , and over Z7 .
12 3 5 3
     
−6 −3 1 4 7 10
(g) BA = over R, over Z7 , and over Z13 .
4 11 4 4 4 11
     
(h) CD = −3 = −3 over R, 4 = 4 over Z7 , and 10 = 10 over Z13 .
     
−13 1 0
(i) EF − 3D =  −6  over R,  1  over Z7 , and  7  over Z13 .
−1 6 12
     
(j) CEF = −64 = −64 over R, 6 = 6 over Z7 , and 1 = 1 over Z13 .

2. Let A be p × q and B be r × s and suppose that AB = BA = In . Since AB = In is

n × n and the product is defined, we have q = r and p = s = n. Also, since BA = In
is n × n, we have s = p and r = q = n. Thus p = q = r = s = n, so that A and B are
both n × n square matrices.

3. Observe that
      
1 a b d −b 1 ad − bc −ab + ba 1 0
AB = = =
ad − bc c d −c a ad − bc cd − dc −cb + da 0 1

and
      
1 d −b a b 1 da − bc db − bd 1 0
BA = = = .
ad − bc −c a c d ad − bc −ca + ac −cb + ad 0 1

Over Z2 , since ad − bc = 1 (the only nonzero element of Z2 ) and 1 = −1, we get

 
−1 d b
A = .
c a

1
4. (a) Using the formula from the previous question,
   
−1 1 − cos θ − sin θ cos θ sin θ
Tθ = = = Tθ .
− cos2 θ − sin2 θ − sin θ cos θ sin θ − cos θ

(b) Using trig identities, we get

  
cos θ − sin θ cos φ − sin φ
Rθ Rφ =
sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ
 
cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ − cos θ sin φ − sin θ cos φ
=
sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ − sin θ sin φ + cos θ cos φ
 
cos(θ + φ) − sin(θ + φ)
= = Rθ+φ .
sin(θ + φ) cos(θ + φ)

(c) Observe first that

   
cos 2π − sin 2π 1 0
R2π = = = I.
sin 2π cos 2π 0 1

Observe next, by iterating the result in (b), for any angle θ and positive integer n,

Rθn = Rθ Rθ . . . Rθ = Rθ+θ+...+θ = Rnθ .

n
In particular, R2π/n = R2nπ/n = R2π = I.
(d) Using trig identities, we get
  
cos θ sin θ cos φ sin φ
Tθ Tφ =
sin θ − cos θ sin φ − cos φ
 
cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ cos φ
=
sin θ cos φ − cos θ sin φ sin θ sin φ + cos θ cos φ
 
cos(θ − φ) − sin(θ − φ)
= = Rθ−φ .
sin(θ − φ) cos(θ − φ)

(e) Using the formula from the previous question, and the facts that cos is an even
function and sin is an odd function, we get
   
−1 1 cos θ sin θ cos(−θ) − sin(−θ)
Rθ = = = R−θ .
cos2 θ + sin2 θ − sin θ cos θ sin(−θ) cos(−θ)

We also have, noting cancellations at the third step,

   
cos φ sin φ cos θ − sin θ cos φ sin φ
Tφ Rθ Tφ =
sin φ − cos φ sin θ cos θ sin φ − cos φ
  
cos φ cos θ + sin φ sin θ − cos φ sin θ + sin φ cos θ cos φ sin φ
=
sin φ cos θ − cos φ sin θ − sin φ sin θ − cos φ cos θ sin φ − cos φ
cos2 φ cos θ + sin2 φ cos θ sin2 φ sin θ + cos2 φ sin θ
 
=
− cos2 φ sin θ − sin2 φ sin θ sin2 φ cos θ + cos2 φ cos θ
 
cos θ sin θ
= = R−θ .
− sin θ cos θ

2
5. Working mod 7, we have

100100 = 2100 = (23 )33 (2) = 133 (2) = 2 ,

so the day will be two days after Monday, which is Wednesday.

6. Working mod 24, first note that 162 = (−8)2 = 64 = −8 = 16, so that 16 coincides
with all of its positive powers, and we therefore have

100100 = 4100 = (42 )50 = 1650 = 16 ,

so the time will be 16 hours after 9 am, that is 1 am the following day. Furthermore,
100100 − 16 hours is a multiple of 24, so the ratio is the number of days, which, working
mod 7, and using the result of the previous exercise, gives

100100 − 16 2−2
= = 0.
24 3
Hence the meteor strike will occur 16 hours after 9 am on some Monday, which will be
1 am on Tuesday.

7. (a) We have
        
2 3 −1 3 −1 5 −2 6 −2 1 0
M = = = − = 2M − I .
4 −1 4 −1 8 −3 8 −2 0 1

(b) Using part (a), we have

M 3 = M (M 2 ) = M (2M − I) = 2M 2 − M = 2(2M − I) − M = 3M − 2I .

From this pattern, we may conjecture that, for any positive integer n,

M n = nM − (n − 1)I .

This holds for n = 2, 3 by what we have just shown, and it clearly holds also for n = 1.
Suppose this formula holds for n = k, We show that it holds for n = k + 1:

M k+1 = M k M = (kM − (k − 1)I)M = kM 2 − (k − 1)M

= k(2M − I) − (k − 1)M = (2k − k + 1)M − kI
= (k + 1)M − kI ,

which establishes the inductive step, and proves the result for all positive integers n.
Note that, by convention,

M 0 = I = 0M − (0 − 1)I ,

so the formula also holds for n = 0. Further, for any positive integer n, we have
   
n 3n −n 1−n 0
M = nM − (n − 1)I = +
4n −n 0 1−n
 
2n + 1 −n
= ,
4n −2n + 1

3
 so that, if we put m = −n, then
 
m −n 1 −2n + 1 n
M = M =
(2n + 1)(−2n + 1) + 4n2 −4n 2n + 1
   
−3n n n+1 0
= +
−4n n 0 n+1
= (−n)M + (n + 1)I
= mM − (m − 1)I ,
which verifies the formula also for negative powers.
(c) Using our formula, we have
   
5 11 −5 10 21 −10
M = 5M − 4I = , M = 10M − 9I = ,
20 −9 40 −19
   
100 201 −100 −100 100 −1

−199 100
M = 100M − 99I = , M = M = .
400 −199 −400 201

8. Observe that in Z7 we have 2(4) = 3(5) = 4(2) = 1, 5(2) = 3 and 6(2) = 5, so that
1 1 1 3 5
= 4, = 5, = 2, = 2, = 2.
2 3 4 5 6
In Z8 we have 3(3) = 1 and 5(7) = 3, so that
1 3
= 3, = 7.
3 5
However, in Z8 , none of the other fractions can exist because the denominators are
divisible by 2, so multiplying them by any element of Z8 will always produce another
element divisible by 2, so can never produce a numerator 1, 3 or 5.
In Z9 we have 2(5) = 4(7) = 1 and 5(6) = 3, so that
1 1 3
= 5, = 7, = 6.
2 4 5
However, in Z9 , the other two fractions cannot exist because the denominators are
divisible by 3, so multiplying them by any element of Z9 will always produce another
element divisible by 3, so can never produce a numerator 1 or 5.
3
In Z24 we have 5(15) = 3, so = 15. None of the other fractions can exist, because
5
their denominators are divisible by 2 or 3, so multiplying by any element of Z24 will
produce another element divisible by 2 or 3, so can never produce a numerator 1 or 5.
9. If M is a square matrix then M (M 2 ) = M (M M ) = (M M )M = (M 2 )M , by associa-
tivity, so that M commutes with its square.
 
1 1
10. Put M = . All of the entries of M are nonzero, since ±1 6= 0 in any field,
−1 −1
yet    
2 1−1 1−1 0 0
M = = ,
−1 + 1 −1 + 1 0 0
the zero matrix.

4
11. Let A be a matrix with a row or column of zeros. Suppose to the contrary that A is
invertible, so there exists a matrix B such that AB = BA = I. If A has a row of zeros
then so does AB. If A has a column of zeros then so does BA. This means that I
must have a row or column of zeros, which is false. Hence A is not invertible.

12. Both inversion and transposition reverse the order of multiplication. Hence, applying
them in succession, we have

T
T
T
T
(AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 = A−1 B −1

and
−1
−1
−1
−1

(AB)T = B T AT = AT BT .

13. (a) Let a, b ∈ G. Then, by associativity and properties of e, we have

(ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = a(bb−1 )a−1 = aea−1 = aa−1 = e ,

and
(b−1 a−1 )(ab) = b−1 (a−1 a)b = b−1 eb = b−1 b = e ,
which proves that (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 , by uniqueness of the inverse.
(b) Suppose that a2 = e for all a ∈ G, so that a = a−1 . Let a, b ∈ G. Then

ab = (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 = ba ,

which verifies that G is abelian.

(c) Suppose first that G is abelian. Let a, b ∈ G, so ab = ba. Hence, by associativity,

(ab)2 = (ab)(ab) = a(ba)b = a(ab)b = a2 b2 .

Conversely, suppose that (ab)2 = a2 b2 for all a, b ∈ G. Then, by associativity and

properties of e and inverses,

ab = e(ab)e = (a−1 a)(ab)(bb−1 ) = a−1 (a2 b2 )b−1 = a−1 (ab)2 b−1

= a−1 (abab)b−1 = (a−1 a)(ba)(bb−1 ) = e(ba)e = ba ,

which verifies that G is abelian.

14. Denote the identity element of G by E and, to distinguish group inversion in G from
matrix inversion, denote the inverse of A ∈ G by A0 , so that AA0 = A0 A = E. Suppose
that at least one matrix M in G is invertible as a matrix, so the matrix inverse M −1
exists. It suffices to show that all matrices in G are invertible. Let A ∈ G. Then

I = M −1 M = M −1 (M E) = (M −1 M )E = IE = E = A0 A ,

and, further,
I = E = AA0 .
Hence, in fact, the matrix inverse A−1 exists and coincides with the group inverse A0 .
This completes the proof that every element of G is invertible.

5
15. (a) We have 0 = 0 + 0, since 0 is an additive identity element of F . If 00 is any other
additive identity element then
0 = 0 + 00 = 00 .
Similarly, the multiplicative identity element is unique, for if 1 and 10 are multiplicative
identity elements then
1 = (1)(10 ) = 10 .
(b) Let a ∈ F . Suppose b, c ∈ F both act as negatives of a, that is,
a+b = b+a = 0 = a+c = c+a.
Then, by associativity and properties of zero,
b = b + 0 = b + (a + c) = (b + a) + c = 0 + c = c .
This proves the negative of a is unique. Suppose now that a 6= 0 and both b, c ∈ F act
as multiplicative inverses of a, that is,
ab = ba = 1 = ac = ca .
Then, by associativity and properties of 1,
b = b(1) = b(ac) = (ba)c = (1)c = c .
This proves the multiplicative inverse of a is unique.
(c) Let a ∈ F . Then, by part (a) and distributivity, we have
0a = (0 + 0)a = 0a + 0a ,
so that, by properties of zero and associativity,


0 = −(0a) + 0a = −(0a) + (0a + 0a) = − (0a) + 0a + 0a = 0 + 0a = 0a .
Note that also 0 = a0 (immediately by commutativity of multiplication).
(d) Suppose that a, b ∈ F and ab = 0. It suffices to suppose that a 6= 0 and show that
b = 0. But then the multiplicative inverse a−1 exists, and so, by the previous exercise
and properties of 1 and associativity, we have
0 = a−1 0 = a−1 (ab) = (a−1 a)b = 1b = b ,
that is, b = 0, and we are done. In particular, Zn cannot be a field if n is composite
positive integer, for then n = ab for some smaller positive integers a and b, so that
ab = 0 in Zn , yet a and b are nonzero, which would be impossible if Zn were a field.
(e) Let a, b ∈ F . Observe that, by distributivity,
ab + (−a)b = (a + (−a))b = 0b = 0 and ab + a(−b) = a(b + (−b)) = a0 = 0 ,
so, by uniqueness of the negative, we have
−(ab) = (−a)b = a(−b) .
In particular,
(−a)(−b) = −(a(−b)) = −(−(ab)) = ab ,
at the last step, again by the uniqueness of the negative.

6
16. Let a, b, c ∈ Zn . Denote addition in Zn by ⊕ and multiplication by ⊗. We use usual
symbols for addition and multiplication in Z. We have to show

(a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c) and (a ⊗ b) ⊗ c = a ⊗ (b ⊗ c) .

We have a ⊕ b = (a + b) + kn for some k ∈ Z and then, for some ` ∈ Z,

(a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = ((a ⊕ b) + c) + `n
= ((a + b) + kn) + c) + `n
= (a + b + c) + (k + `)n .

Similarly we have b ⊕ c = (b + c) + k 0 n for some k 0 ∈ Z and then, for some `0 ∈ Z,

a ⊕ (b ⊕ c) = (a + (b ⊕ c)) + `0 n
= (a + ((b + c) + k 0 n) + `0 n
= (a + b + c) + (k 0 + `0 )n .

But these both lie in the set {0, . . . , n − 1}, so the difference, as an integer, cannot be
a nontrivial multiple of n. Thus

(k + `)n − (k 0 + `0 )n = 0n = 0 ,

so that (k + `)n = (k 0 + `0 )n. This proves (a ⊕ b) ⊕ c = a ⊕ (b ⊕ c).

Similarly, we have a ⊗ b = (ab) + kn for some k ∈ Z and then, for some ` ∈ Z,

(a ⊗ b) ⊗ c = ((a ⊗ b)c) + `n
= ((ab) + kn)c) + `n
= (abc) + (kc + `)n .

Similarly we have b ⊗ c = (bc) + k 0 n for some k 0 ∈ Z and then, for some `0 ∈ Z,

a ⊗ (b ⊗ c) = (a(b ⊗ c)) + `0 n
= (a((bc) + k 0 n) + `0 n
= (abc) + (ak 0 + `0 )n

for some ` ∈ Z. But these both lie in the set {0, . . . , n − 1}, so the difference, as an
integer, cannot be a nontrivial multiple of n. Thus

(kc + `)n − (ak 0 + `0 )n = 0n = 0 ,

so that (kc + `)n = (ak 0 + `0 )n. This proves (a ⊗ b) ⊗ c = a ⊗ (b ⊗ c).