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WATER INJECTION

1-ROLES OF WATER INJECTION

1.1-Production in a reservoir

An oil deposit is an underground volume of porous rocks. The rock voids or pores are filled with fluids that
may be:

Some water

Some oil

The gas.

The forces that govern the 'static' equilibrium of the system are:

-The pressure

Gravity forces.

The forces of capillarity.

The development of a deposit involves connecting it to the surface through a well.

producer, and to carry out a fluid transfer from the reservoir to the surface where these fluids will be collected and stored, or even
separated or treated.

To produce, it is necessary to move these fluids that were previously in a state of equilibrium towards the production well within the
porous medium.

If there is movement, new forces appear:

Viscous friction forces.

Inertia forces.

It is necessary to have driving physical phenomena to move fluids.

The physical state in which the components of the deposit are placed, and in particular the fluids, induces a number of
of engines that we will call NATURAL and which come from the disruption of balance caused by the implementation of
communication of the deposit with the surface.

As a result, in most oil fields, more oil would be left in the ground than would have been recovered if
they only allowed natural motors to act.

1.2-Assistance Means

Initially, we can "help" the fluid rise in the tubing by pumping or by gas lift (methods called)
activation), which allows for lower pressure at the bottom of the hole. However, allowing a reservoir to deplete presents some
major disadvantages resulting in a lower final recovery.

Very quickly, we sought to 'maintain the reservoir pressure' to improve recovery, by injecting water.
or gas in the formation. Following primary recovery using the potential energy of the reservoir or production
Naturally, these assisted recovery methods have taken the name of secondary recovery.

This secondary recovery through pressure maintenance still leaves large quantities of oil at the bottom.

To further improve the recovery factor, it is necessary to intervene on the interfacial properties of the fluids, either by
injection of a surfactant, either by modifying the viscosities relative to water and oil. These recovery methods are the
more often coupled with pressure maintenance processes, and are commonly referred to as 'tertiary recovery.'
The exact term being enhanced oil recovery.

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1.3-Important Remarks

Water injection, or the re-injection of produced water associated with crude after separation, represents 80 to 85% of the oil.
additional produced by enhanced recovery. It is also the least expensive way to improve the
retrieval and instant production.

In the case of gas fields, enhanced recovery is only used to produce more condensate. So in
all cases: Assisted recovery = Produce more fluid

-If during an assisted recovery, the volume of fluids injected under baseline conditions is equal to the volumes of the fluids
Products brought back to the background conditions will be referred to as MAINTAINING PRESSURE.

2-RECOVERY ASSISTED BY WATER INJECTION

The most important enhanced recovery process in the world, water injection is one of the biggest concerns.
important of the operators.

An assisted recovery process is all the more effective as it allows for an increase in the total quantities extracted.
(recovery aspect), but also of the flow produced (production aspect).

Perform a water injection in an oil formation to maintain reservoir pressure and enhance sweep.
The oil via this water requires defining a water quality for each formation to ensure fluid circulation.

The flow of hydrocarbons in a porous medium, essential for production, never occurs in a truly closed system.
monophasic. Indeed, in the pores of the rock, there is most often a certain amount of water (called saturation).
This water was put in place by hydrocarbons when they displaced it during the formation of the reservoir (migration).

3-THE CHOICE OF WATER INJECTION

the implementation of a water injection will most often be decided in the following cases:

-Low natural energy oil deposit:

Under-saturated oil.

Low activity aquifer or negligible volume.

Low permeability or large oil reservoir. In this case, the pressure differences between the producing wells
and the aquifer or the gas can be too important.

Oil deposits whose spatial configurations are such that natural water or gas entries leave
important areas not swept.

3.1-Positioning of injection wells

Peripheral injection (also called grouped)

In the case of steeply dipping reservoirs, it will be interesting to inject water into the aquifer near the oil/water interface.
in a way to benefit from gravitational forces for a piston-type movement.

Distributed or dispersed injection

In the case of quasi-horizontal reservoirs and large depressions, one cannot use gravity to sweep.
The oil and water injectors will be dispersed in the oil area.

3.2-The choice of water injection involves:

A good knowledge of the reservoir and the aquifer, therefore a minimum production history. In the case where the
The physical conditions of the deposit require water injection, simultaneous with the start of production; it is necessary to carry out
modular installations to account for uncertainty in the specifications.

A definition as precise as possible of the water quality required by the training in terms of ionic balance.
content of suspended solids, particle size of solid particles, and clogging capacity. This definition is only possible through
of studies and tests on reservoir water and soil samples.

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The provision of sufficient water supply, in quantity, quality, and regularity.

The implementation of injection wells, wisely placed and equipped with suitable layer-to-hole connection means for the
formation, water qualities and hydraulic conditions.

The installation of surface facilities necessary for water treatment, distribution, and injection.
The field exploitation program must take these water installations into account.

4-THE TREATMENT CHAIN

4.1-Objectives to be achieved and associated treatments

From a water source, it is necessary to inject into the oil formation, through injection wells and according to a
scheduled timeline, water quantities compatible with receptive training and at the best investment costs
of exploitation.

The equipment making up the water treatment chain must ensure the functions of:

Water collection

Transfer of water from the extraction point to the injection wells, ensuring the pressure losses due to
treatment equipment.

Filtration to ensure mechanical compatibility with the formation (non-clogging during the operational period.

Fight against corrosion.

Anti-bacterial fight.

High-pressure pumping for injection.

Distribution of treated water.

Injection through wells equipped with suitable downhole and surface equipment.

Only the functions of filtration, corrosion protection, and antibacterial action are the subject of actual treatments.

Let's remember that the treatments are only intended to make the water compatible with the receiving formation. According to the quality
raw water, that is to say the choice of the water source, these treatments will be essential or not, and will have a
importance variable. As far as corrosion control is concerned, it is only intended to protect the facilities that
currently are not all resistant to corrosion. Dissolved oxygen in water is a very significant factor of corrosion.
Importantly and classically, a deoxygenation treatment is installed for aerated waters.

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Pumps of Water exchangers Feeding Pre-layer

lifting sweet/seawater (land of (cellulose +
sea water (water cooling diatoms diatoms
sweet)

Diatomaceous earth filters

(sieve + cake)

water filters
sea
(in cartridges)

Electrochlorinator
Chlorine injection

Antifoam

Washing Water
Vacuum pumps
deoxygenation

Continuous bactericide

Bactericide Batch
Pumps
Anti Corrosion high pressure injection

Anti-oxygen

Injector well
Tour of
deairation
Pumps of
Filters of
suppression
security at
boosting
cartridges

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5-SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT

5.1-Lifting

Suspended type lift pumps (surface motor) are submerged in 'risers' leading to a
water depth chosen after sampling at various levels. In general, for average depths, the level
optimal is located halfway between the bottom and the surface.

The metallurgy of the pumps is designed to be resistant to corrosion from aerated and chlorinated seawater at 5 ppm.

After numerous failures (piercing, shearing, etc.), the steel risers coated with rilsan were replaced by
composites (glass fiber, epoxy) bolted stainless steel embedded.

5.2-Chlorination

5.2.1-Action of chlorine

Chlorine, a powerful oxidant, is a blessing for the water treatment process.

In the treatment of injection waters, chlorination performs three essential functions.

Anti-fouling

It protects the submerged equipment (pump, riser), and the primary circuit up to the filters from entanglements and
proliferations of marine organisms that attach to the walls and block the pipes.

Filtration assistance

Through its oxidizing action on dispersed organic matter, chlorine destroys mucilages and organic aggregates.
high water content, which are particularly clogging. It is a flocculant of colloids. There would be no filtration.
fine possible from industrial material at a high flow rate without prior chlorination.

Bactericide

Chlorine is known as a very powerful bactericide at low concentrations (a few ppm). In reality, a
derived from chlorine in aqueous solution, hydrochlorous acid HCLO, has the most pronounced bactericidal effect. The concentration
The amount of hydrochloric acid for the same dose of chlorine or hypochlorite (bleach) depends primarily on the pH.

Note

Active chlorine has an oxidation state of + and not -

The action of chlorine is both proportional to the contact time and to the concentration.

A low concentration over a long contact time is equivalent to a high concentration with a short contact time.
brief contact.

5.2.2-Chlorine production

Chlorine can be supplied through liquid chlorine (bottle), chlorine dioxide (CLO2), bleach, or
solid chlorine (ATCC).

Offshore, we have the opportunity to produce chlorine through the electrolysis of seawater.

At the anode Cl- 1/2 Cl2 + e-

At the cathode Na + + e- Na

In the presence of water Cl2 + OH- Cl- + (HClO)

Na + H2 OH H2 + NaOH

Overall, we can write: 2 NaCl + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + Cl2 + 2H2

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This electrolysis is carried out in devices called electrochlorinators that return a solution of hypochlorite.
sodium or bleach in seawater. The electrical consumption of these devices is 6 to 8 kW/kg of chlorine
product.

5.2.3-Dosage

The dosage of chlorine injected into raw water depends on the quality of oxidizable organic matter.

The dosage necessary for the oxidation of organic matter is determined by measuring the 'break point' which takes into account
account of the formation of ammonium derivatives of chlorine which are themselves oxidizers.

But chlorine is also very corrosive and its concentration must be limited to a few tenths of ppm to avoid
corrode the steels.

Note

In reality, in current installations, chlorine is largely removed at the degasification towers.

The residual part is eliminated by oxidation of the sulfate used as an oxygen reducer.

5.2.4-Chlorine Injection

Chlorine injection takes place below the lift pump in the riser (1.5 to 2 m below the suction) by
through a flexible or a rigid pipe fixed to the riser.

It is important that the injection is not performed above the pump which is a dead zone, and that the injection of
chlorine should be stopped simultaneously at the lift pump. Otherwise, the chlorine concentration may
exceed corrosion tolerance and cause serious damage.

5.3-Filtration

5.3.1 - the filtration of injection waters

A suspension can be characterized by two intrinsic factors (which depend only on the water in question):

A concentration of undissolved and solid materials represented by a standardized measure, the TSS (Total Suspended Solids).
In Suspension).

The granulometric distribution of suspended materials that can be expressed in weight fraction or in number.
of particles per unit volume and by classes of equivalent diameters.

Note

Equivalent diameter = diameter of a sphere having the same volume or the same surface or the same projected area as the
Particles considered to have a non-regular shape.

The size of the solid particles to be eliminated for a water injection is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions.
the pore thresholds of receiving formations are from 1 to a few tens of microns.

This filtration is therefore within the range of suspended solids (< 30mg/l) and this filtration is a clarification.

Action of the filter on a suspension

A filter is a liquid-solid separator that allows for the elimination of a fraction of solid particles by retention on or
within a porous body, called a filtering medium, during the passage of a suspension through this medium.

The result is a modification of the granulometric curve of the suspended materials and a reduction in the
solid content (TSS).

Consequently, the sealing power of the suspension is modified.

The sealing power is not an intrinsic parameter of the suspension. It is a value relative to the porous medium.
crossed. Murky water can have zero sealing power with respect to a grid, while clear water can have
the high sealing power in relation to a microporous membrane.

Absolute filtration threshold

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It is the equivalent diameter of the largest particle that can pass through the medium.

Counts practically zero particles greater than or equal to x µm.

5.3.2 - Materials for injection water filtration

Water injection facilities handle high flow rates, generally several thousand cubic meters per day, and most often
must have a continuous walk.

Filtration requires periodic regeneration or changing of filter media.

discontinue.

It will therefore always be necessary to provide multiple devices, one of which can be regenerated while the others
ensuring the filtration of the entire flow.

Among the various industrial clarifying filters available on the market, three main families are distinguished.
filters that are adaptable across media.

It should be noted that only closed and pressurized filters are used. In all cases, the filter creates a loss of
charge used to force water through the medium.

The distinction is less between surface filtration and depth filtration than based on the filtering media and the
regeneration systems.

5.3.3-Precoat filters

Widely used in non-oil industries (chemistry - agri-food), these filters use a medium
filter made up of a cake of granular materials (filter aid) placed before the filtration cycle
on a support.

This support is generally a textile or metal fabric whose mesh void is relatively coarse (50 to 100
µm).

The additives used in water injection are diatomaceous earth, and the filters are often referred to as diatomaceous earth filters.
or diatomite.

Diatoms are unicellular brown algae whose cellulose membrane has the property of fixing silica.
the water and forms a 'frustule' of hydrated silica. These frustules range in size from 4 to 50 microns, and present
extremely diverse forms.

After fossilization, significant deposits of a light and very porous rock: diatomaceous earth. After treatment
(calcination, grinding, classification), diatomites are presented in the form of a fine powder, which allows for the formation
of very high porosity and high permeability.

The densities of the cake are on the order of 0.3 g/cm3.

Operating principle

Deposition of the pre-layer: A high-load suspension of diatomaceous earth (T.D) is forced through the cloth.
support.

The mesh of the web is quickly obstructed by bridges of entangled particles that prevent others.
crossing particles.

A layer (gel - cake) forms, with very high porosity and permeability but with diameters of
pores are very fine.

The effluent becomes clear, there is separation of the diatomaceous earth suspension. The removal operation of the
the pre-sleep is then finished.

Note 1: To promote the adhesion of the undercoat to the substrate and the stability of the bridges obstructing the meshes, one can
make a deposit of long fibers (asbestos, cellulose, cotton) either previously mixed with the latter.

Note 2: To improve the filtration thresholds obtained, multilayers can also be created by layering.
layers of different grades.

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Note 3: Some additives also contain diatomaceous earth, products with high retention capacity.
of hydrocarbons, which allows the filter to eliminate traces of oil that may be contained in crude.

Filtration - Feeding :

After the removal of the pre-forms, the suspension flow is replaced by the raw water flow to be treated. Given the low
size of the pores of the pre-coat, filtration is primarily a surface filtration, and a cake is formed
Suspended solids removed. Generally, this cake does not have the permeability of the pre-layer and may even be
quasi waterproof.

We therefore inject into the water to be treated a suspension of diatomaceous earth, usually of a certain grade.
coarse. These diatomaceous particles are integrated into the cake formed, giving it greater porosity and a
acceptable permeability.

Regeneration:

The regeneration operation is carried out by the "fall" of the pre-layer and the MES cake, and cleaning of the supports. It does not
There can therefore be clogging of the medium, as it is eliminated at each cycle.

According to the filter technology, the "falling" occurs by countercurrent, by centrifugal force, or by pressure washing.
supports.

The device is then ready to receive a new pre-coat through a new filtration cycle.

Type of materials:

The different types of pre-coat filters are determined based on the shape and arrangement of the supports.

1. Horizontal plate filters:

These devices are composed of a stack of hollow, horizontal circular plates. The whole is enclosed
in a vertical cylinder "the body".

The upper surface of each panel is equipped with a pre-coating support fabric.

Raw water is admitted into the body of the filter and the filtered water is discharged through the hollow central axis that runs through all the
plateaus.

The advantage of this type of horizontal plate filter is a good hold of the precoat, the effect of gravity.
tending to maintain the precast. Only the upper faces are used and the surface of
Filtration is low compared to the filter's bulk.

Regeneration is most often carried out by countercurrent water flow and rapid rotation of the plates.
empty filter.

2. Vertical frame filters:

The arrangement of the trays is identical, but the cylindrical stacking is horizontal. This allows for equipping the
two sides of the canvas support boards.

The external footprint is consequently reduced for the same filtration area, but the pre-coatings are
more sensitive to the 'drop'.

Regeneration is carried out by slowly rotating the frames and using tangential jets of pressurized water.
to canvas surfaces.

This is the type of filter we have chosen for the industrial applications of water injection.

3. Suspended candle filter:

The body of the filter is a container in which a "ceiling" is arranged, from which the candles are suspended. These
Candles are made of a porous material or are equipped on their external surface with support fabric.

Cylindrical candles are generally equipped with a central drainage for filtered water that leads into
the upper part of the drum.

These filters have the advantage of a large filtration area for a small external footprint.
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However, when depositing the preforms, it is observed that the distribution is less uniform than in the case of
frame filters.

Moreover, these filters are excessively sensitive to vibrations due to the design of the candles.
suspended. This is what makes them unsuitable for use on platforms.

Sizing parameters

[Link] of Diatomaceous Earth:

The grade of the filtration aid depends on the desired filtration threshold.

The finer the granularity, the better the filtration threshold. However, the diatomaceous earth bridges on the
The mesh of the support webs is all the more fragile as the grain size is fine.

To achieve very fine thresholds (on the order of the micron), it is beneficial to work with two layers of soil.
diatoms (even three layers).

Indeed, a low grain size gap between one layer and the next must be respected to avoid mixing the
two layers leads to a low permeability pre-layer.

The diatomaceous earth used for feeding will always have a relatively high grain size or
average. Laboratory tests and small pilot trials on site are essential to optimize the choice of
diatomaceous earth and the required load per unit of area.

The average load is 0.7 to 1.4 kg/m² of support, which leads to an initial primer thickness of 2.5 to
5 mm.

2. Deposit of preforms:

Preparation tray for precasts:

Volume: at least 3/4 of the filter volume.

Height to diameter ratio: from 1 to 1.5.

Circulation pump:

Flow rate: for maximum filtration speed + 10%

Pressure: 10 bars

3. Filtration speed:

Our experience in seawater leads us to recommend a filtration rate of 1.6 to 2.2 m/h.

A higher speed may be allowed on the other filters during the regeneration of a filter, but must not
exceed 3.2 m/h.

4. Pressure losses:

Initial: about 0.4 bars.

Final: about 2 bars.

The pressure drop at the end of the filtration cycle depends on the permeability of the formed cake. The feeding
allows to maintain this permeability in order to maximize the filtration cycle.
Feeding is variable with the water to be treated and is determined by tests.

5. Security filter:

Diatomaceous earths are extremely abrasive elements and sealing agents.

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The main risk of using pre-layers is the accidental rupture of the pre-layers and the sending of a plug.
diatomaceous earth in filtered water.

Additionally, there is a slight leakage of diatomaceous earth in the treated water.

It is therefore necessary to have a safety filter downstream of the pre-filter. This safety filter must not...
No way to be a finishing filter. Its filtration threshold will therefore be chosen higher than that of the pre-layers.

Wash ramp

(filter refurbishment)

Water
filtered

Gear motor
for rotation
of the sieves

Sieve
Seawater
brute

Drainage (filter servicing)

Support

Metal lattice
Pre-layer
Cellulose
Filtered water
Cake
Feeding
Diatomaceous earth
Necessary in
continue

Batissage

Sieve
support Renovation
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5.3.4 - Regenerable cartridge filters in back flow

Operating principle:

These are surface filters, whose filter media are generally metal or textile screens.
supported by a perforated cylinder.

The media-support assembly is called a cartridge or a candle. A mechanical system allows for placement upstream of
each candle creates an atmosphere, inducing a fluid circulation opposite to filtration.

This reverse circulation aims to "drop" the cake of suspended solids retained on the medium and
to eliminate it.

This regeneration backflow therefore requires a certain pressure downstream of the cartridges and is controlled either by the
upstream - downstream pressure difference, either at a delay or both at the same time.

Regeneration can be made more efficient:

By deformation of the medium during the back flow that cracks and detaches the cake.

By the release of a compressed air capacity in the downstream circuit, which causes a pressure spike.

In any case, the key point of these devices is the functional regeneration of the cake's adherence to the media.
filter.

Types of equipment:

There are two main types of equipment, depending on whether the cartridges are in independent cases or grouped in a
unique bidon.

- Independent carters :

The candles consist of a perforated cylindrical support, sealed at one end and arranged axially in
a cylindrical crankcase.

The media consists of a textile 'sock' that is put on the support and is held in place by a collar.
or by a mechanically solidly secured canvas.

The back-flow setup is done for the removal of raw water admission and the opening of the housing on the
purge network. The downstream pressure filter ensures the regeneration flow.

A communal cart:

All the filter candles are arranged in a generally cylindrical container. They are also shaped
of a metallic cylinder. A second support is applied to the medium to hold it against the support.

Raw water is admitted inside the cartridges and the filtered water is collected in the container in the external space.
candles.

A rotating skate, applied to the intake manifold, allows for communication of the inside of the
cartridges (upstream) with the purge network, in "packages" of two to six candles.

Regeneration is much less efficient than in the type with independent housings. Furthermore, media
fins textiles can be punched on the holes of the support.

The main advantage of this type of equipment is its low bulk.

Regeneration:

In the case of common housings, aside from the pressure loss downstream of the filter - purge, we can only play with the speed.
the rotation of the rotating skate in a range of 10 to 30 rpm. Higher speeds lead to wear
premature of the skate.

In the case of independent housings, one can play both on the frequency of regenerations and on the duration of
regenerator, which allows complete control of the operation by the operator.

In any case, only real-world trials allow for the optimization of regeneration parameters.

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5.3.5-Disposable cartridge filters

Operating principle:

Very old, the cartridge filter has seen great development. Its simplicity and ease of implementation have made it
used in a large number of applications.

The cartridges are hollow cylinders whose walls constitute the filtering medium. The fluid to be filtered passes through
radically from the outside to the inside of the cylinder where the filtrate is collected.

Filtration occurs on the surface only if the medium is a 'membrane' or also slightly in.
depth if the medium is a thick surface.

The size of the cartridges has been standardized, although not all manufacturers meet the standards, but in
In particular, the lengths are 10" or multiples of 10".

Filters are simple cylindrical containers in which one to several hundred are placed.
of cartridges and equipped with the internal equipment necessary for the separation of a space in relation to
the inside of the cartridges making up the front of the filter.

There is no regeneration device. The filtration cycle is stopped when the pressure drop reaches
values such as the mechanical strength of the cartridge may no longer be sufficient and that the water flow
treated is too weak.

There are a large number of disposable cartridges on the market, which can be divided into two main types:

The felt or spool type consisting of a thickness of porous materials obtained by stacking.
of regular or irregular fibers, or by sintering granular materials.

The pleated type, the media is an axially pleated membrane to increase the filtration surface.
supported by a cage that forms the structure of the cartridge.

Types of equipment:

There is only one type of equipment consisting of a container or casing that can hold one or more cartridges, and
resistant to various service pressures.

5.3.6-Hydrocyclones

Although they are not filters in the strict sense, hydrocyclones are liquid-solid separators (in this case).
that it is sometimes advantageous to use water injection.

Their area of action is limited to water loaded with mineral particles, and for high filtration thresholds.

It is imperative to conduct cycloning tests before choosing a hydrocyclone instead of a filter.

Operating principle :

A hydrocyclone consists of a cylindrical part and a conical part.

The admission occurs tangentially in the cylindrical part where the water acquires a circular motion. The radius
The current's gyration is gradually reduced by the conical part. It is the primary vortex within which
The particles are subjected to a centrifugal force that gathers them along the wall.

The rise of water occurs through the axis/ Secondary vortex where the radius of gyration is greatly reduced which
significantly increases the speed. The finest particles are then expelled towards the primary vortex.

One can reach thresholds of 20µm with silicate particles in fresh water at 20°C.

Advantages:

The main advantages of multi-hydrocyclones are the small footprint and the absence of moving parts.

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5.3.7 - Technical-economic comparisons - Areas of application

Selection criteria:

The first criterion for choosing a filter is the flow rate to be processed. Within the range of filters capable of handling this flow rate, we
then the cutoff threshold comes into play, that is to say the quality of water that we want to achieve. Next come
criteria related to local constraints that are:

The relative weights and dimensions.

Continuous or non-continuous operation.

The ease of operation.

-The technological adaptation to the industrial site.

For low flows < 500m3/day and tests:

We often prioritize the lowest investment price, which has accepted higher treatment costs per cubic meter.

This is the essential area of application for disposable cartridge filters, which are also very easy to install.
If a roughing floor proves essential, cartridges will be installed preferably.
regenerable in back flow.

For high flow rates >1000m3 / day:

High cut-off thresholds:

For average required water qualities, it will often be beneficial to install regenerable cartridges.
back flow if weight is an important criterion, or sand filters with large grain size without flocculation.

Fine cut-off thresholds:

The operating costs of disposable cartridge filters quickly become prohibitive for high flow rates.

The choice is then between sand filters with flocculation and precoat filters.

In both cases, the operating costs are comparable, with the cost of additives balancing that of the flocculants.
On the other hand, the investment costs are in favor of sand filters.

5.4-Desoxygeneration

5.4.1-Physical deaeration:

The most commonly used process is column stripping with trays either by gas, under vacuum, or mixed.
depending on local capabilities. When this type of unit is well adjusted, it allows for a reduction in oxygen content.
as low as values around 5 ppb and normally at 100 ppb. Values of 0.5 ppm indicate a bad
functioning of stripping. This system involves the systematic injection of anti-oxygen, an injection that will be useful to
automatically commanded through an oxygen analyzer.

It is also useful to point out the beneficial effect on deaeration provided by the gas injection process in the line.
water. This technique can be considered in certain cases.

The gas stripping degassing system can lead to precipitation of CaCO3 if the stripping gas does not
does not contain CO2 (therefore it is necessary to slightly acidify the seawater at the entrance of the stripping tower or to inject
a non-deposit.

The excess of CO2 can, on the contrary, give stripped water a corrosive character that will be inhibited by injection.
corrosion inhibitor or (better) bactericide with corrosion inhibiting power (quaternary ammonium or amine)
for example).

The use of gas containing H2S must be prohibited (very high risk of localized corrosion and impossibility
practice of inhibiting this kind of attack, at the present time). Indeed, the presence of residual oxygen traces at the same time
The presence of H2S gives the water a highly aggressive power, with sulfites (catalyzed by incompatible metal ions.
with the S) are then ineffective and the injection of a corrosion inhibitor worsens the localized nature of corrosion
(reduction of attacked areas but acceleration of the attack rate of anodic zones).

Problems existed with only 20 ppm of dissolved H2S and 1 ppm of O2. Then, consider a stripping process.
video.
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Besides the risks of CaCO3 precipitation, vacuum stripping is often the site of foaming that
notably reduce its effectiveness. A device for injecting anti-foam will need to be arranged at the entrance of the tower. The anti-foam
mousse must be a water-soluble product, such as poly glycol for example. However, it will be necessary to avoid using the
silicones, however more active, due to their insolubility and especially the risk of degradation into colloidal silica at high
sealing power. Preferably use poly glycols.

5.4.2-Chemical Deaeration:

Chemical deaeration is done by a chemical reaction of reducers on oxygen. Among the many products
The most convenient reducing agents to use are sodium sulfite and ammonium bisulfite catalyzed.

This product increases the pH which can be beneficial for stabilizing carbonates.

Their action is also very specific depending on the quality of the water to be treated, certain substances contained in the water.
can completely block the reduction mechanisms. Selection trials are imperative under the conditions
use, in particular, the determination of the reaction rate will allow to define (and limit) the volume of
necessary skills.

An indirect method of chemical deaeration already mentioned is the lifting of seawater in a well supplied with
through reducing layers. It is almost never complete and requires a supplement of sulfite.

In any case, the absence of oxygen promotes the proliferation of anaerobic bacteria, specifically sulfate-reducing bacteria.

5.5-High Pressure Pumping

Pumping problems are dealt with elsewhere.

It should be noted that for water injection, centrifugal pumps are preferred over reciprocating pumps and that this is becoming widespread.
the use of variable speed turbo pumps.

5.6-Distribution Network

Very classic installations: Manifold - pipelines or sea-lines.

Let us note that the water has been treated to the required quality at the high-pressure pumps, and it is appropriate to take all the
precautions to preserve this quality in the network. In particular, one must avoid polluting the water with products from
corrosion that are very clogging.

The use of pipelines made of compact materials or sea lines of the COFLEXIP type is recommended.

5.7-Injection wells

The injection well is the link between the surface and the reservoir.

The architecture of an injection well is classic: tubing with packer. Some fields have completions.
doubles but these are inappropriate.

The downhole equipment is identical to that of a production well.

Some small variations:

-The coated tubing: it prevents internal corrosion because the transport of corrosion particles may clog the
well.

The check valve: this prevents back flow during injection stops, which can lead to an invasion of the bottom of
wells by sediments in unconsolidated formation.

5.8-Additives

Additives are all the chemical products that are injected throughout the processing chain.

Chlorine injection was discussed in the chlorination chapter.

Flocculant and poly electrolyte:

In the case of sand filtration, it is most often necessary to inject a minimal coagulant and a flocculant.

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These injections are done inline and are followed by static mixers.

The choice of products used depends on the quality of the water to be treated and the nature of the suspended materials to be removed.
is a decisive parameter for the effectiveness of filtration.

Anti foam:

Injected upstream of the empty towers, these products must be injected with precision as they are often (Silicones) of
effective sealants.

Anti oxygen:

See, Chemical Deoxygenation

Bactericides:

They are most often injected downstream of the filters as they mostly get stuck there.

Corrosion inhibitors:

Sometimes necessary, but they always lead to a decrease in water quality and, as far as possible, they are to be
avoid.

6-EXPLOITATION OF FACILITIES

6.1-Objectives:

the facilities having been set up to produce a certain quantity of water, with a certain quality, the objectives of
the operator are:

to ensure that the water quality is correct.

to ensure that the various equipment functions correctly.

The two objectives are linked; if the installation is well designed, the proper functioning of the installations leads to good quality.
of water.

Consequently, the operator must communicate the operation of their unit.

6.2-Means of control

6.2.1-Chlorination

Free chlorine dosages are traditionally carried out using HACH or CHEMETS type field kits.
adapted sensitivity.

Recently, free chlorine sensors have become available and placed online, effectively replacing measurements.
by withdrawals.

The use of an online sensor allows for controlling the intensity of the electrochlorinator based on the chlorine measurement, depending on
of a threshold set by the operator.

Note:

Periodically, samples of chlorinated water from the electrochlorinator are to be analyzed to assess its functioning.
from the device that must provide a quantity of chlorine linked to the amperage of electrolysis.

6.2.2-Bacterial Control

These checks should be performed at least once a week at the end of the processing chain (suction of the HP pumps)
and if possible at the same frequency at the injection well heads. They consist of seeding TEST KITS that
will be put into incubation in the laboratory.

More thorough checks on the entry and exit of certain equipment can be carried out to locate a hotspot.
of infection.

6.2.3-Deoxygenation Control

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Very important, these checks should be performed frequently if they are done offline by sampling.

The use of an online oxygen probe allows for the instantaneous detection of a malfunction in the deaeration towers.
or systems for injecting sulfate or antifoam.

In the case of an empty tower, a measurement (continuously if possible) of the gaps on two or three floors is also a
valuable indication for the operator.

It is also advisable to periodically stop the injection of sulfite to assess the effectiveness of the tower.

6.2.4-Filtration control

To measure the contractual effectiveness of a micron filter, it is necessary to count the solid particles in the
suspension downstream and upstream of the device.

A particle counter is used. The measurement performed offline is delicate and requires specialized personnel.
trained.

The sealing power is not taken into account in this type of measurement.

For a given water and a given installation, an appropriate measurement of the clogging index is representative of the
water quality for injection and the proper functioning of the installations.

For example, for installations treating seawater and using precoat filters, we recommended the
measure known as clogging index 20 liters (IC20), carried out/

-By millipore or ultipore filter 0.45µm - 0.7µm.

Constant upstream pressure: 2 bars.

Sampling tube in the middle of the liquid vein with a whistle at 45° upstream.

This measure is not representative of the formation clogging but it is a global indicator of water quality.

For waters different from seawater downstream of the precouches, it is appropriate to define measures that are also easy to
implemented by the operators and which have a relative value.

For example, on raw seawater, IC20s are unachievable, we can use IC3 but the measurement is poorly suited.

EX:CONGO

The following limits have been determined:

1 < IC20 1.1 Excellent

1.1 < IC20 < 1.25 - Very good

1.25 < IC 20 Good

For IC20 values > 1.6 or 1.7, redoing the undercoats.

The obtained values range from 1.05 to 1.20 except at the beginning of the cycle where these values are higher (1.25 to 1.30).
Stabilization is achieved after a few dozen minutes.

Note 1: The feed control at the entrance of each filter is done by measuring suspended solids (SS).

Note 2: An optical inspection on the filters used for the IC20 is carried out in the laboratory to determine a possible drop.
of diatomite.

6.2.5-Corrosion Controls

Corrosion rate measured on coupon

A good location is the downstream line of the deoxygenation tower. The coupon is removed every month.

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Instantaneous corrosion

By portable device (e.g., CORRATER) and probes in place by special device.

Raw chlorinated seawater: 1 to 2 mm/year.

Iron concentration

Conducted by CHEMETS-type measurements, these measurements allow for the detection of an attack on equipment.

Note: For bacterial corrosion, refer to the TEST KITS.

6.3-Monitoring of parameters - Actions

For a given installation, under regular operation, the essential operating parameters are:

The evolution of pressure drop across the filters.

The oxygen content downstream of deoxygenation.

6.3.1-Pressure loss on main filtration

From the beginning of the filtration cycle to its end, the pressure drop increases and is representative of the clogging of the filter.

These assessments must be regular and proportional to the flow passing through the filter.

If the loss increases (faster clogging):

Check the chlorination.

Check the feeding (for the pre-layers).

A deterioration in the 'quality' of raw water may require an increase in the thresholds set for these two.
parameters.

If the loss decreases without a proportional decrease in the flow, there may be a partial drop of the pre-couches.

Check the IC20 output pre-coatings. If necessary, redo the pre-coatings.

Any anomaly on the curve P = F (time) must be regarded as a malfunction of the filtration, including
chlorination and feeding.

6.3.2-Downstream oxygen content tower

This parameter should also be monitored continuously.

Excessive oxygen content leads to checking the facilities:

Empty values obtained.

Anti-foam injection.

Sulfate injection.

6.3.3-Other follow-ups

We will not detail here all the mechanical parameters related to rotating machines and, in particular, to
pumping. It goes without saying that the unit flows on the filters necessary for interpretation must be monitored.
pressure differential curves.

Monitoring the flow rate and pressure at the head of each well allows for the assessment of the clogging of the layer well connection.

This clogging can be an indicator of poor water quality or an invasion of the well bottom by sediments.

It allows for deciding on the necessity of possible treatment of the well / acidification, sand removal.

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Controlling the pressure at the wellhead reduces the risk of fracturing the formation with sealing issues.
(cementation) that this could imply.

6.4-Antibacterial fight

Three objectives:

Protection against clogging.

-Protection against souring.

Protection against bacterial corrosion.

For seawater treatment processes, the core of the antibacterial policy is based on decontamination.
by the chlorine at the lifting.

However, neither the concentration nor the action time is sufficient for complete sterilization.

Practically, we carry out minimal treatment with biweekly batches. 200 ppm of glutaraldehyde for 5 hours at
rejection of boostings.

Theoretically, a continuous injection of 20 ppm is recommended, but it proves to be very expensive.

6.5-Anti-corrosion fight

There are three ways to fight against corrosion.

Change the Material.

Change the environment.

Protect the material.

Every material has a 'Achilles' heel' that must be known. In most aqueous environments, materials
Non-metallics provide better chemical and bacterial resistance at a lower cost.

Deaeration or deoxygenation of water is only intended to protect installations by changing

the environment in which metals are placed.

The greatest care must be taken in the selection of inhibitors, the actual protection they provide can be illusory and,
In some cases, they can increase local corrosion.

Cathodic protection essentially involves imposing a current so that the metal to be protected becomes a cathode. This
current is produced by sacrificial anodes or a titanium graphite anode generator or high content steel
silicon.

In seawater injection, sacrificial anodes are used.

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