ATOMIC STRUCTURE – Detailed Notes ([Link].
1st
Semester Chemistry – Minor)
1. Bohr’s Atomic Theory
Niels Bohr in 1913 improved upon Rutherford’s model and explained how electrons remain stable
around the nucleus. He proposed that electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed energy levels or
shells without radiating energy. Each orbit is associated with a fixed energy, called the quantized
energy level.
Postulates:
1. Electrons revolve in circular orbits around the nucleus without losing energy.
2. Energy is absorbed or emitted only when an electron jumps between orbits: ∆E = hν.
3. The angular momentum of an electron is quantized: mvr = nh/2π.
Example: For hydrogen, when an electron jumps from n=3 to n=2 level, light is emitted (Balmer
line). This explains the line spectrum of hydrogen. Bohr’s theory successfully explained hydrogen
spectra but failed for multi-electron atoms.
2. de Broglie Theory (Wave-Particle Duality)
Louis de Broglie proposed that moving particles like electrons behave as waves. He associated a
wavelength (λ) with every moving particle, given by:
λ = h/mv
where h is Planck’s constant, m is the mass of the particle, and v its velocity.
This concept explained why only certain orbits are allowed in Bohr’s model — the orbit should allow
an integer number of wavelengths to fit perfectly (standing wave condition).
Example: For an electron moving with velocity 2×10■ m/s, λ = 6.63×10■³■ / (9.1×10■³¹ × 2×10■)
≈ 3.6×10■¹■ m.
3. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Proposed by Werner Heisenberg (1927). It is impossible to know both the exact position (x) and
momentum (p) of a particle at the same time.
Mathematically: ∆x × ∆p ≥ h/4π
If we try to measure the position more accurately (smaller ∆x), the uncertainty in momentum (∆p)
increases, and vice versa. This principle proves that the concept of a definite orbit for electrons is
not possible.
Example: If uncertainty in position is 10■¹■ m, then minimum uncertainty in momentum will be ≥
h/(4π×10■¹■).
4. Schrödinger’s Time-Independent Wave Equation
Erwin Schrödinger treated the electron as a wave and derived an equation describing its motion.
The equation is:
■ψ = Eψ
where ■ is the Hamiltonian operator (total energy), ψ is the wave function, and E is the total energy
of the system. This equation gives the allowed energy levels and shapes of orbitals.
In simpler terms, it tells us how electrons are distributed in space around the nucleus, replacing the
idea of fixed circular paths with wave-like regions called orbitals.
5. Significance of ψ and ψ²
ψ (psi) represents the wave function, which has no direct physical meaning but provides
mathematical information about the electron’s behavior.
ψ² (psi squared) represents the probability density of finding an electron at a particular point in
space. High ψ² means a high chance of finding the electron there.
Example: In a 1s orbital, ψ² is highest near the nucleus, meaning the electron is most likely to be
found close to it.
6. Schrödinger Equation for Hydrogen Atom (Qualitative
Treatment)
When Schrödinger’s equation is applied to hydrogen, it gives discrete energy levels similar to
Bohr’s model. However, instead of fixed paths, it predicts orbitals — 3D regions where the
probability of finding an electron is highest.
These orbitals are represented as s, p, d, and f shapes. For example, the 1s orbital is spherical,
while the 2p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.
7. Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers describe the unique position and energy of each electron in an atom.
1. Principal quantum number (n): Indicates the main energy level (shell). n = 1, 2, 3,...
2. Azimuthal (l): Describes the shape of orbital. l = 0 (s), 1 (p), 2 (d), 3 (f).
3. Magnetic (m): Describes orientation in space; values from -l to +l.
4. Spin (s): Describes spin direction; values +½ or −½.
Example: For 3p electron: n=3, l=1, m=−1, 0, +1, s=+½ or −½.
8. Electronic Configuration of Elements
Electronic configuration describes how electrons are arranged in atomic orbitals according to three
rules:
1. Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill lower-energy orbitals first (1s→2s→2p→3s→3p→4s→3d→4p→5s
...)
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers.
3. Hund’s Rule: Orbitals of equal energy are singly occupied before pairing.
Examples:
H (1): 1s¹
He (2): 1s²
O (8): 1s² 2s² 2p■
Na (11): 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s¹
■ Summary & Key Equations
Bohr’s Model: mvr = nh/2π
Energy change: ∆E = hν
de Broglie Relation: λ = h/mv
Uncertainty Principle: ∆x × ∆p ≥ h/4π
Schrödinger Equation: ■ψ = Eψ
ψ²: Probability of finding an electron
Quantum Numbers: n (energy level), l (shape), m (orientation), s (spin)
Aufbau Order: 1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s ...
Key Idea: Modern atomic theory combines wave and particle nature of electrons, replacing Bohr’s
fixed orbits with wave-based orbitals.