BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

Electrochemical cell: An electrochemical cell is a device that is used to convert chemical

energy into electrical energy and vice versa.

These electrochemical cells are classified into two types. They are as follows.

1) Galvanic or Voltaic cells: These are the electrochemical cell, which converts chemical

energy into electrical energy.

Ex. Daniel cell, Dry cell, etc.

2) Electrolytic cell: These are the electrochemical cells, which are used to convert electrical

energy into chemical energy.

Ex: Lead acid battery, Nickel cadmium battery etc.,

Galvanic cell (Ex. Daniel cell)

The Daniel cell consists of two half-cells in which zinc and copper electrodes are immersed in

zinc sulfate and copper sulfate solution, respectively. The two half-cells are internally

connected by a salt bridge and externally by a metallic wire. The zinc electrode undergoes

oxidation and loses an electron. The electron liberated migrates to another half-cell.

Oxidation
Zn (s) Zn2+ + 2e-

In the other half-cell, the cupric ions accept the electrons, undergo reduction, and get

deposited on the copper electrode as copper atoms.

 Reduction
2+ -
Cu (aq) + 2e Cu (s)

Due to the above simultaneous oxidation and reduction reactions, the Daniel cell generates an

electrical current, which is indicated by a voltmeter or ammeter.

Cell representations

The Daniel cell can be represented as

Zn (s) /Zn2+(aq) (C1)//Cu2+(aq) (C2) /Cu(s).

Cell notations

/A Single vertical line represents a phase boundary between the metal and its solution.

// Double vertical line represents a salt bridge.

An arrow mark indicates the direction of flow of electrons.

C1 & C2 are the concentrations of the electrolytes.

Cell Conventions

i) The half-cell which undergoes oxidation is always written towards the left side of the salt

bridge.

ii) The half cell which undergoes reduction is always written towards the right side of the salt

bridge.

iii) If the direction of the arrow mark indicates from left to right. The electrons flow from anode

to cathode, and the cell reactions are spontaneous If the direction of the arrow mark indicates

from right to left, then electrons flow from cathode to anode. Then, cell reactions are non-

spontaneous.

iv) The term electrode potential always refers to the reduction potential.

Electrode Potential

Electrode potential is defined as the potential developed at the interface between the metal and

the electrolytic solution when it is in contact with a solution of its own ions.
Standard Electrode Potential (Eo)

It is the potential measured when the electrode is in contact with an electrolytic solution of unit

concentration at 298K.

If the electrode involves gas, then the gas is at 1 atm pressure.

EMF of the Cell (Ecell )

The potential difference between the two electrodes of the galvanic cell, which causes the flow

of current from one electrode (higher potential) to the other (lower potential) is known as the

EMF of the cell.

Standard EMF of the Cell (Eo Cell )

The potential difference between the two electrodes of the galvanic cell, which causes the flow

of current from one electrode (higher potential) to the other (lower potential) of the cell if an

electrolytic solution of unit concentration and at 298K.

If the electrode involves gas, then the gas is at 1 atm pressure.

Origin of Electrode Potential

When a metal electrode is in contact with a solution of its own ions two types of reaction are

possible.

* metal pass in the solution as ions Mn+ + ne- M

* Simultaneously, metal ions from the solution tend to discharge onto the metal.

Mn+ + ne- M

In the beginning, any one of the reactions is faster and the other one is slower. After some time

faster reaction becomes slower, and the slower reaction becomes faster, and the equilibrium

state exists as follows

Mn+ + ne- M
 The two tendencies of the metal result in a charge separation, and the development of

an electrode potential occurs at the electrodes. Consider the first type of reaction, the metal

atom goes into the solution as +ve ions, leaving behind a layer of electrons on the electrode

surface. The +ve ions collect around the electrode surface, forming a layer of +ve charges.

Thus, a double layer is formed at the interface of the electrode and the solution, called

Helmholtz Electrical Double Layer [HEDL].It is practically indistinguishable. Formation of an

electrical double layer develops a potential near the electrode known as the single electrode

potential. Similarly, potential is developed at another electrode also.

( Till here it’s extra information)

Batteries and their importance

Definition: A Battery is a collection of electrochemical cells connected either in series or in

parallel to get the required amount of energy.
Batteries are part of our everyday life. A day would not last without using our hand
phones. Every time we go out, we either drive our car or take a public vehicle. We use a remote
control to switch channels while watching television. We unconsciously bump with batteries
in everyday events. A battery is a device used to generate electrical energy. It powers hand
phones, remote controls, flashlights, hearing aids and helps cars to start easily. There are even
automobiles invented today that operate by electrical energy stored in batteries.
Portability is what makes batteries so important. Can you imagine using your hand phones,
cameras, remote control, flash lights, wristwatches and cars plugged in to electrical outlets? It
would be so difficult and troublesome. The convenience brought by batteries led to the
invention of more gadgets, appliances and equipment that make use of them. Now, there are
battery-operated lawn mowers, wireless mice, fans, lamps, and televisions that used to be only
available with cords.

Classification of Batteries

Batteries are classified into three types as follows.

a) Primary Batteries

b) Secondary Batteries

c) Reserved Batteries

a) Primary Batteries: These are the batteries that serve as a source of energy only as long as

the active chemical species are present in the battery or in the cell. The cell reactions are

irreversible. These are designed for only a single discharge and cannot be charged again.

Ex: Dry Cell (Zn-MnO2 cell), Zn–HgO cell, Zn-Ag2O cell etc.,

b) Secondary Batteries: These batteries are rechargeable and can be used again and again.

The cell reactions are reversible and are often called reversible batteries. During discharging,

the cell acts like a voltaic cell, converting chemical energy into electrical energy. During

charging, the cell acts like an electrolytic cell by converting electric energy into chemical

energy, hence these batteries are called a storage battery.

Ex: Lead acid Battery, Ni-Cd battery etc.,

c) Reserved Batteries: The key components of the batteries such as electrolyte etc., is

separated from the battery. And the battery is stored for a longer time. The electrolyte if filled

before its usage. The batteries that can be stored in an active state and made ready for use by

activating them prior to the applications (usage) are called as reserved batteries. But in some

water-activated batteries, the electrolyte solute is contained in the battery and only water is

added for activation.

The advantages of the reserve batteries are

 Batteries can be stored for a longer period.

  To prevent corrosion at contact points during storage.

 Self-discharging reactions during storage can be eliminated or avoided.

 They can be used whenever they are required.

Ex: Mg - water activated batteries (Mg- AgCl & Mg - CuCl), LiV2O5 batteries etc.

Basic Requirements of Commercial Batteries

 Portability

 Should be compact and lightweight

 High cell voltage and stable voltage plateau over most of the discharge

 High stored energy content per unit volume/mass

 Low resistance

 High sustained power output

 Wide temperature range of operation

 Low cost and maintenance-free

 It should have a long shelf life and cycle life

 Safe in use and under accident conditions.

LITHIUM ION BATTERY:

A lithium-ion battery is a rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative
electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and vice versa when charging.

CONSTRUCTION: A conventional lithium battery consists of a cathode and an anode.

Cathode (+ve) is made up of lithiated transition metal oxide, such as lithium cobalt-

oxide( LiCoO2). Similarly, the anode (-ve ) is made up of graphite. The electrolyte consists

of a lithium salt in an organic solvent. The salts include lithium hexafluorophosphate LiPF 6,

Lithium tetrafluoroborate LiBF4 and lithium perchlorate LiClO4. The solvents used are

ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate and diethyl carbonate

 OR (either u write by paragraph or by specifying like below)

Anode: Graphite

Cathode: NaCoO2 (Lithiated salt)

Electrolyte: Lithiated salt in organic solvents

Salts like NaPF6, NaBF4, NaPO4 and Organic solvents like ethylene carbonate, dimethyl
carbonate, and diethyl carbonate

Working:

Cathode and anode electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out. During charging,
lithium in the cathode electrode material gets ionised and moves towards the cathode and
anode. During discharge, Li ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate across the
electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure of the cathode. During this, the electrons
travel through the external circuit and are accepted by the host to balance the process thorough
a reversible process. (This must and should be written if the questions arise for 8 marks)

Reaction:
During Discharge:

Liy-graphite + LixCoO2 → Li(x+y)CoO2 +C-Graphite

During Charging:

Li(x+y)CoO2 +C-Graphite → Liy-graphite + LixCoO2

Applications:

Used in mobile phones, laptops, and tablets.

Power source for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid vehicles.

Used in renewable energy storage systems (solar and wind energy).

Power supply for medical devices like pacemakers and ventilators.

Used in cordless power tools (drills, saws, lawn mowers)

Advantage:
Lithium-ion batteries have comparatively low self-discharge and have higher energy density.

Disadvantage:
Low cycle life, poor low-temperature performance and capacity.

SODIUM ION BATTERY:(SIB)

CONSTRUCTION:

A sodium-ion battery is an energy storage system based on an electrochemical

charge/discharge reaction. The reaction occurs between a positive electrode (cathode)
composed of sodium-containing layered materials, and a negative electrode (anode) that is
typically made of hard carbon (graphite). Sodium salts like NaPF6 dissolved in organic
solvents like dimethyl carbonate act as electrolytes.

Anode: Graphite

Cathode: NaCoO2 (Lithiated salt)

Electrolyte: Lithiated salt in organic solvents

Salts like NaPF6, NaBF4, NaPO4 and Organic solvents like ethylene carbonate, dimethyl
carbonate, and diethyl carbonate
WORKING :

The Na ion is inserted and extracted into the lattice structure of t h e anode and cathode
duringdischarging. During charging, Na ions are ionised and move from the cathode to the
anode, where they are insertedReaction :

During charging: C + NaMnO2→ MnO2 + NaC

During discharge: MnO2 + NaC → C + NaMnO2

APPLICATION:

 Used in st at io nar y ener gy st orage syst ems for r enewable energy ( so lar
and wind) .
 S uit able for gr id ener gy st orage t o balance elect r ic it y supply and
demand.
 Used in backup po wer syst ems and unint err upt ible po wer supplies
( UP S).
 Applied in e lect r ic t wo - wheeler s and low- speed elect r ic vehic les.
 Used in po wer t oo ls as an alt er nat ive t o lit hiu m - io n bat t er ies.
 I deal fo r ho me and indust r ia l energy st orage syst ems due t o lo w cost .

LITHIUM POLYMER (LiPo)BATTERY:

A lithium-ion battery is a rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative
electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and vice versa when charging.
CONSTRUCTION:

Anode: Usually made up of Graphite

Cathode: Lithium metal oxide ( LiMnO2 or LiCoO2 or LiFePO4 )

Electrolyte: A solid or gel-like polymer containing a lithium salt like LiPF6

Ex: Polyacrylonitrile, polyethene oxide

Working:

Cathode and anode electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out. During charging,
lithium in the cathode electrode material gets ionised and moves towards the cathode and
anode. During discharge, Li ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate across the
electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure of the cathode. During this, the electrons
travel through the external circuit and are accepted by the host to balance the process through
a reversible process.

Reaction:
During Discharge:

Liy-graphite + LixMnO2 → Li(x+y)MnO2 +C-Graphite

During Charging:

Li(x+y)MnO2 +C-Graphite → Liy-graphite + LixMnO2

Application:

1. Smartphones and tablets

2. Laptops and notebooks
 3. Smartwatches and fitness trackers
4. Bluetooth headsets and earbuds
5. Portable power banks and media players

BATTERY PERFORMANCE METRICS:

Battery Voltage:

Voltage is the electrical potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of a
battery.
It represents the force that pushes electrons through an external circuit, allowing the battery
to deliver power. Unit: Volt (V)

Types of Voltage in Batteries:

Type of Voltage Description Typical Use / Measurement

Open-Circuit Voltage is measured when the battery is not Used to estimate the state of
Voltage (OCV) connected to any load (no current flowing). charge (SOC).

Closed-Circuit Voltage is measured when the battery is Indicates actual operating

Voltage (CCV) delivering current to a load. voltage.

Used to classify batteries (e.g.,

Nominal Voltage Average voltage during normal discharge.
Li-ion = 3.7 V nominal).

Minimum voltage allowed during discharge

Cut-off Voltage For Li-ion: ~2.5–3.0 V.
before damage or deep discharge occurs.

Charging Voltage Voltage applied while charging the battery. For Li-ion: typically 4.2 V per cell.

Current Density:
Definition: Current density (J) is the electric current (I) flowing per unit area (A) of the
electrode through which the current passes.

J=I/A

Units: Ampere per square meter (A/m²)

Often also given as mA/cm² in battery and fuel cell studies.

Physical Meaning

 It represents how much current flows through a specific area of the electrode.
  In batteries, higher current density means the battery is charged or discharged faster
per unit electrode area.

Types of Current Density in Batteries:

Type Description

Discharge current
Current drawn during discharge per electrode area.
density

Charge current
Current applied during charging per electrode area.
density

Exchange current Represents the rate of electrochemical reaction at equilibrium (no net
density (J₀) current flow). It’s a key parameter for electrode kinetics.

Battery Capacity:
Definition: Battery capacity is the total amount of electric charge a battery can store and
deliver under specified conditions.
It represents how long a battery can power a device before it needs recharging.

Capacity = Current (I) × Time (t)

Units:
o Ampere-hour (Ah)
o Milliampere-hour (mAh)
o 1 Ah = 1000 mAh = 3600 Coulombs (C)

Types of Capacity:

Type Meaning Example

Rated (Nominal) The manufacturer-specified capacity under standard 3000 mAh for a typical Li-ion
Capacity test conditions (e.g., 25°C, 0.2C rate). cell

Actual The real capacity obtained during testing may differ

(Measured) from the rated capacity due to aging, temperature, or 2800 mAh after 1 year
Capacity discharge rate.

The portion of total capacity that can be safely used

Usable Capacity without damaging the battery (depends on cut-off 80–90% of total for Li-ion
voltage and DoD).
Testing Battery Capacity

1. Fully charge the battery.

2. Discharge it at a known constant current until reaching the cut-off voltage.

3. Record discharge time → calculate:

𝐶 =𝐼×𝑡

Battery Power Density

Definition

Power density is the amount of power output a battery can deliver per unit mass or volume.

It shows how fast the battery can deliver its stored energy.

Power Output
Power Density (P) =
Mass or Volume
Units:

o Gravimetric: W/kg (watts per kilogram)

o Volumetric: W/L (watts per litre)

Difference Between Power Density and Energy Density

Parameter Energy Density Power Density

How much energy a battery can

Meaning How fast a battery can deliver energy
store

Unit Wh/kg W/kg

Analogy Size of a fuel tank Horsepower of the engine

High value Strong acceleration or quick energy

Long runtime
means delivery

Battery Energy Density:

Definition

Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored in a battery per unit mass or
volume.
It tells how long a battery can power a device before needing recharge.
 Stored Energy
Energy Density =
Mass or Volume

 Gravimetric energy density: Wh/kg → energy per unit mass

 Volumetric energy density: Wh/L → energy per unit volume

Formula

1. Basic Equation: 𝐸 = 𝑉 × 𝐶

Where,𝐸=energy (Wh), 𝑉=nominal voltage, 𝐶= capacity (Ah)

2. Energy Density:

𝑉×𝐶
Energy Density =
𝑚
Where, 𝑚= mass of the battery (kg)

Importance:

 High energy density → longer battery life or smaller, lighter devices.

 Crucial for applications like:

o Electric vehicles (EVs)

o Smartphones and laptops

o Drones and satellites

o Renewable energy storage

Cycle Life:
Definition: Cycle life refers to the number of complete charge–discharge cycles a battery
can undergo before its capacity falls below a specified level (usually 80% of its original
capacity).

Cycle life = Number of times the battery can be charged and discharged before it “wears out.”

A cycle means:

 Charging the battery fully (for example, from 0% to 100%)

 Then discharging it (for example, back to 0%)

However, partial cycles also count.

Example: Two 50% discharge–charge cycles ≈ one full cycle.

How Cycle Life Is Measured

Cycle life is tested under controlled conditions:

 A battery is charged to its rated capacity.

 Then discharged at a specified rate (called C-rate).

 This process repeats until the capacity drops below a threshold (often 80% of initial
capacity).

Factors Affecting Cycle Life:

Cycle life depends on many chemical, electrical, and environmental factors:

Factor Description Effect

Depth of Discharge How much of the battery’s capacity is Lower DoD → longer cycle
(DoD) used per cycle life

High temperatures speed up chemical Too high or too low

Temperature
degradation shortens life

C-rate High rates cause stress and

Speed of charging/discharging
(charge/discharge rate) reduce life

Overcharging or deep discharging Staying in safe range

Voltage limits
damages electrodes improves life

LiFePO₄ > Li-ion > Lead-

Battery chemistry Different materials age differently
acid (in cycle count)

Expansion/contraction of electrodes Leads to cracking, capacity

Mechanical stress
during cycling loss

Side reactions consume active

Electrolyte degradation Reduces capacity gradually
materials
Typical Cycle Life by Battery Type:

Battery Type Typical Cycle Life Notes

Lead-acid 300–500 cycles Sensitive to deep discharge

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) 500–1000 cycles Good durability, but memory effect

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) 500–1000 cycles Moderate cycle life

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) 500–2000 cycles Depends on design and usage

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO₄) 2000–7000 cycles Excellent longevity

Solid-state (emerging) 5000+ cycles Under development for EVs

To extend cycle life:

1. Avoid full charge/discharge – keep between 20–98%.

2. Use moderate temperatures – avoid overheating.

3. Charge slowly when possible – lower C-rates reduce stress.

4. Use proper battery management systems (BMS).

5. Choose the right chemistry for your application.

To extend cycle life:

1. Avoid full charge/discharge – keep between 20–80%.

2. Use moderate temperatures – avoid overheating.

3. Charge slowly when possible – lower C-rates reduce stress.

4. Use proper battery management systems (BMS).

5. Choose the right chemistry for your application.

Shelf Life:
Definition: Shelf life is the period a battery can be stored (unused) while still retaining most
of its original capacity and performance.

Shelf life is how long a battery can “sit on the shelf” before it becomes unusable or loses too
much charge.
During Shelf Storage

1. Even when a battery is not in use, chemical reactions still occur slowly inside it.
These reactions cause:

2. Self-discharge (loss of charge)

3. Electrolyte decomposition

Battery Type Typical Capacity Range

Coin cell (Li-ion CR2032) 200–250 mAh

AA Alkaline 2000–3000 mAh

Smartphone Li-ion 2000–5000 mAh

EV battery pack 50–100 Ah (per module)

Lead-acid (car) 40–100 Ah

Degradation and Capacity Fade

Over time, capacity decreases due to:

 Electrode material degradation

 Loss of active lithium

 Electrolyte breakdown

 Formation of SEI (Solid Electrolyte Interphase) layer.

FACTORS AFFECTING BATTERY PERFORMANCE:

1. Effect of Temperature
(a) Effect of High Temperature:

When the temperature increases above the optimal range (usually 20–40°C for most batteries):

 Increased Reaction Rate

Chemical reactions within the battery occur at a faster rate.

This temporarily improves performance and reduces internal resistance so that the battery can
deliver higher current.
  Accelerated Degradation

High temperature speeds up electrolyte decomposition, electrode corrosion, and the formation
of unwanted byproducts.

This causes capacity loss and shorter cycle life.

 Increased Self-Discharge

The rate at which a battery loses charge when not in use increases with temperature.

Example: A Li-ion battery might lose 2–3% per month at 25°C, but up to 15% per month at
60°C.

 Thermal Runaway (in Lithium Batteries)

If too hot, exothermic reactions can cause further heating—leading to thermal runaway, fire,
or explosion.

(b) Effect of Low Temperature

When the temperature drops below the optimal range:

 Slower Chemical Reactions:

The movement of lithium ions or other charge carriers slows down. This leads to reduced
capacity, lower voltage, and poor power output.

 Increased Internal Resistance:

The electrolyte becomes more viscous, and ion flow is hindered. More energy is lost as heat
inside the battery.

 Reduced Charge Acceptance:

Batteries are harder to charge in cold conditions because ions move sluggishly. Charging at
low temperatures can cause lithium plating, permanently damaging the battery.

 Temporary Capacity Loss:

Capacity drop at low temperatures is usually reversible when the temperature returns.

Optimal Temperature Range:

Lithium-ion batteries: 20–40°C

Lead-acid batteries: 25–30°C

Nickel-based batteries: 20–45°C

Operating outside these ranges reduces both efficiency and lifespan.

2. Charging and discharging rate

What is C-rate?

The C-rate (capacity rate) describes how fast a battery is charged or discharged relative to
its nominal capacity.

Charge or Discharge Current (A)

C-rate =
Battery Capacity (Ah)

During Charging:

At higher C-rates, the battery charges faster. More heat is generated due to internal resistance.
Side reactions (like electrolyte breakdown) may occur. Risk of overheating or lithium
plating (especially in Li-ion batteries).

Safe practice: Most lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries are charged at 0.5C to 1C to
balance speed and longevity.

During Discharging:

A higher C-rate means drawing more current in a short time. Battery voltage drops faster.
Capacity appears smaller (less usable energy). More heat and internal stress. Lower C-rate
gives: Higher efficiency, stable voltage, and longer runtime.

3. Battery aging and its mechanism:

The aging mechanism of a battery refers to the physical and chemical changes that occur
inside the battery over time, which reduce its performance, capacity, and lifespan.

Battery Aging Types: There are two main types of ageing:

(a) Calendar Ageing

• Occurs over time, even when the battery is not in use.

• Caused by chemical reactions inside the battery, especially at high

temperatures or high states of charge (SOC).

(b) Cycle Aging

• Occurs when the battery is charged and discharged repeatedly.

• The aging depends on the depth of discharge (DoD), charging/discharging rate (C-rate),
and operating conditions.

Aging Mechanisms
1. Electrode Degradation: Active materials in electrodes (cathode/anode) degrade with time.
Causes: 1. Mechanical stress due to expansion/contraction during cycling.
2. Cracking or loss of contact between particles.
Results: Reduced active surface area → lower capacity.

2. Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) Growth

 A thin film forms on the anode surface during initial cycles.
 Over time, this SEI layer thickens, consuming lithium ions.

Results: Loss of lithium inventory (LLI) → lower capacity.

3. Electrolyte Decomposition
 High temperature or voltage causes the electrolyte to break down.
 Produces gases and unwanted compounds.
Results: Increased internal resistance and swelling of cells.

4. Lithium Plating
• Occurs when charging is done too fast or at low temperatures.
• Metallic lithium deposits on the anode surface instead of intercalating.
Results: Safety risks (short circuits) and capacity loss.

5. Cathode Degradation
• Transition metals (like Ni, Mn, Co) may dissolve into the electrolyte.
• Structure changes (phase transitions) occur during cycling.

Results: Reduced energy capacity and efficiency.

[Link] of Conductivity
Due to corrosion of current collectors or degradation of conductive additives.
Results: Poor electron flow → reduced power output.

Factors Accelerating Ageing

• High temperature
• High state of charge (SOC)

• Deep depth of discharge (DoD)

• High C-rate (fast charging/discharging)
• Repeated mechanical stress

Effects of Aging:
• Decrease in capacity
• Increase in internal resistance
 • Shorter cycle life
• Reduced power output

• Possible safety hazards (gas formation, short circuits)

BATTERY TESTING
Battery testing is the process of evaluating a battery’s performance, safety, reliability, and
lifespan under different operating conditions. It helps determine whether a battery meets its
design specifications and ensures its suitability for intended applications (like electric
vehicles, mobile devices, or energy storage systems).
Importance of Battery Testing: Battery testing is performed to:
• Measure capacity, voltage, and efficiency
• Study charge–discharge behaviour

• Evaluate cycle life and aging

• Assess safety and thermal stability
• Verify manufacturing quality and consistency

Cell Balancing in a Battery

• Cell balancing is the process of equalizing the voltage (or charge level) of individual
cells within a battery pack to ensure all cells operate uniformly and safely.

• Since a battery pack (like in EVs or laptops) consists of many cells connected in series
and/or parallel, small differences between cells can lead to uneven charging, reduced
performance, and shorter lifespan. Balancing corrects these differences.
Even if all cells are identical initially, over time, they become unequal due to:
• Manufacturing variations

• Different internal resistance or self-discharge rates

• Uneven temperature during operation
• Ageing effects

[Link] Management in Cell Balancing:

Thermal management plays a critical role in cell balancing because balancing—especially in
large battery packs like EVs or energy storage systems—can generate significant heat.
Proper temperature control ensures safety, performance, and longevity of the battery system.

Importance of Cell Balancing

• During cell balancing, energy is either:
 • Dissipated as heat (in passive balancing), or

• Transferred between cells (in active balancing — still generating some heat due to
circuit losses).

Thermal Management Methods:

A. Passive Cooling
• Natural air convection around the battery pack.
• Suitable for small packs (e.g., laptops, small e-bikes).
• Simple but less effective for large or high-current systems.

• Cell temperature rises → accelerates aging

• Causes non-uniform temperatures between cells
• May lead to thermal runaway (especially in lithium-ion systems

B. Forced Air Cooling

• Fans or blowers circulate air through cooling channels.
• Keeps all cells at uniform temperature.

• Common in hybrid vehicles and portable energy storage.

C. Liquid Cooling
• Coolant (glycol-water mixture) flows through channels or plates near cells.

• Removes heat efficiently during balancing or high-load operation.

• Used in EV battery packs

D. Phase Change Materials (PCM)

• PCMs absorb excess heat by melting and release it slowly on cooling.
• Provide passive, uniform thermal control.
• Useful for compact systems with limited space.

• Heat Pipes / Thermal Pads

• Heat pipes conduct heat away from cells to a cooling plate.

• Thermal interface materials (TIMs) ensure good contact between cells and the
cooling system.
2. State of Charge (SOC) of a Battery
The State of Charge (SOC) represents how much energy remains in a battery compared to
its total capacity. It is similar to a fuel gauge in a car — showing how “full” or “empty” the
battery is.

Definition:
Remaining Capacity
SOC = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
Nominal (Full) Capacity
• SOC = 100% → Battery fully charged

• SOC = 0% → Battery fully discharged

Importance of SOC: Accurate SOC estimation is essential for:
• Battery Management System (BMS) operation

• Preventing overcharge or deep discharge (which damages cells)

• Optimising performance in EVs, laptops, and renewable energy systems

• Estimating range and remaining runtime

Factors Affecting SOC Accuracy:

• Temperature (affects voltage and resistance)
• Battery aging (capacity fading changes the SOC calculation)

• Measurement errors (sensor inaccuracy)

• Rate of discharge (voltage drops vary with current load)

[Link] of Health (SOH) of a Battery

The State of Health (SOH) indicates the overall condition and aging level of a battery
compared to when it was new. It reflects how much of the original performance and
capacity the battery has retained over time.

Definition
Current Battery Performance
SOH = × 100%
Rate (New) Performance
• Usually, capacity or internal resistance is used to define SOH:

𝐶𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
SOH = × 100%
𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
where

𝐶𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 :Present capacity (Ah or mAh)

𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 :Original (nominal) capacity

Factors Affecting SOH Degradation:

• High temperature
• High or low state of charge (SOC) storage

• High charge/discharge rates (C-rate)

• Deep depth of discharge (DoD)
• Repeated cycling

• Poor cell balancing

[Link] of Batteries:
• Battery recycling is the process of collecting, breaking down, and reusing materials
from old or end-of-life batteries to reduce environmental impact, conserve resources,
and recover valuable metals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and copper.

Why Battery Recycling Is Important

• Environmental Protection: Prevents soil and water contamination from toxic
chemicals (like lead, mercury, cadmium).

• Resource Recovery: Saves rare metals (Li, Co, Ni) that are expensive to mine.
• Energy Efficiency: Recycling metals uses far less energy than extracting new ones.
• Economic Value: Recovered materials can be reused in new batteries or electronics.

• Safety: Prevents improper disposal, which can cause fire or explosion.

Environmental & Economic Benefits:

• 1. Reduces the mining of new resources

• 2. Saves energy in material production

• 3. Decreases water and soil pollution
• 4. Generates economic value from recovered metals

• [Link] circular economy and sustainability goals.

Major Recycling Methods:
A. Pyrometallurgical (Thermal) Process.
B. Hydrometallurgical (Chemical Leaching) Process.

C. Direct Recycling (Re-lithiation or Reuse.

Challenges in Battery Recycling:

• Complex battery designs (many chemistries and formats)
• Collection and transportation difficulties (especially for EV batteries)

• Safety issues (fire, explosion during handling)

• High cost and energy use in current recycling processes
• Need for better automation and standardisation