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Medical Laboratory Sampling Techniques

This module covers the fundamentals of sampling in qualitative and quantitative research, including definitions, terminology, and types of sampling designs. It emphasizes the importance of sample size and variation in drawing inferences, as well as the differences between random and non-random sampling methods. The module also discusses the trade-offs between accuracy and resources in sampling, and the role of judgment in qualitative research.

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12 views9 pages

Medical Laboratory Sampling Techniques

This module covers the fundamentals of sampling in qualitative and quantitative research, including definitions, terminology, and types of sampling designs. It emphasizes the importance of sample size and variation in drawing inferences, as well as the differences between random and non-random sampling methods. The module also discusses the trade-offs between accuracy and resources in sampling, and the role of judgment in qualitative research.

Uploaded by

AngelicaVenice Fungo
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH

MODULE (LABORATORY)

MODULE 7: SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

Learning Outcomes

After the completion of this module, you will be able to:

1. differentiate between sampling in qualitative and quantitative research


2. describe of sampling terminology
3. discuss theoretical basis for sampling
4. determine the factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample
5. differentiate the types of sampling including:
○ Random/probability sampling designs
○ Non-random/non-probability sampling designs
○ The ‘mixed’ sampling design

Introduction

In this module, you will learn the basic concepts in sampling and the appropriate
sampling technique used for qualitative and quantitative research.

Pre-test

Direction: On the space provided before each number, write True if the statement is correct
and False if otherwise.

____ 1. Sampling is the process of selecting a few from a bigger group to become the
basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of
information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group.
____ 2. Sampling is a subgroup of the population you are interested in.
____ 3. The class, families living in the city or electorates from which you select you
select your sample are called the population
____ 4. The way you select students, families or electors is called the sampling unit
____ 5. A list identifying each student, family or elector in the study population is called
the sampling frame

Lecture Notes

Choosing a sample population

State how and why the sample was chosen from the larger population, and use tables as
needed to present information about the control and treatment groups.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 39


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

Sample and sampling

While most people would associate the words ‘sampling’ and ‘selection’ with survey
approaches, there will be elements of these involved whatever approach you are taking to
your research project.

Sampling, therefore, is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the
sampling population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an
unknown piece of information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group.

A sample is a subgroup of the population you are interested in.

If your research involves observation, you will not be able to observe everybody of interest all
of the time.

If you are carrying out a case study, you will need to select the case or cases which you are
going to focus on.

Even with desk- or library-based research, sampling is an element of the procedure as you
will not be able to access, or even read, every book or document that has been written on your
subject.

Whatever your approach, you should, therefore, give some consideration to the related issues
of sampling and selection.

Sampling terminologies

• The class, families living in the city or electorates from which you select your sample
are called the population or study population, and are usually denoted by the letter
N.
• The small group of students, families or electors from whom you collect the required
information to estimate the average age of the class, average income or the election
outcome is called the sample.
● The number of students, families or electors from whom you obtain the required
information is called the sample size and is usually denoted by the letter n.
● The way you select students, families or electors is called the sampling design or
sampling strategy.
● Each student, family or elector that becomes the basis for selecting your sample is
called the sampling unit or sampling element.
● A list identifying each student, family or elector in the study population is called the
sampling frame. If all elements in a sampling population cannot be individually
identified, you cannot have a sampling frame for that study population.
● Your findings based on the information obtained from your respondents (sample) are
called sample statistics. Your sample statistics become the basis of estimating the
prevalence of the above characteristics in the study population.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 40


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

● To select an unbiased sample, we need to make sure that each unit has an equal and
independent chance of selection in the sample. Randomization is a process that
enables you to achieve this.
● When there is a difference, this is attributed to the sample and is known as sampling
error.
● Your main aim is to find answers to your research questions in the study population,
not in the sample you collected information from. From sample statistics we make an
estimate of the answers to our research questions in the study population. The
estimates arrived at from sample statistics are called population parameters or the
population mean.

Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample

The above principles suggest that two factors may influence the degree of certainty about the

inferences drawn from a sample:

1. Sample size – Findings based upon larger samples have more certainty than those
based on smaller ones. As a rule, the larger the sample size, the more accurate the
findings.
2. extent of variation in the sampling population – The greater the variation in the study
population with respect to the characteristics under study, for a given sample size, the
greater the uncertainty. (In technical terms, the greater the standard deviation, the higher
the standard error for a given sample size in your estimates.) If a population is
homogeneous (uniform or similar) with respect to the characteristics under study, a small
sample can provide a reasonably good estimate, but if it is heterogeneous (dissimilar or
diversified), you need to select a larger sample to obtain the same level of accuracy.

Note: If all the elements in a population are identical, then the selection of even
one will provide an absolutely accurate estimate. As a rule, the higher the variation with
respect to the characteristics under study in the study population, the greater the
uncertainty for a given sample size.

Aims in selecting a sample

When you select a sample in quantitative studies you are primarily aiming to achieve maximum
precision in your estimates within a given sample size, and avoid bias in the selection of your
sample.

Bias in the selection of a sample can occur if:

● sampling is done by a non-random method – that is, if the selection is consciously or


unconsciously influenced by human choice;
● the sampling frame – list, index or other population records – which serves as the
basis of selection, does not cover the sampling population accurately and completely;
● a section of a sampling population is impossible to find or refuses to cooperate.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 41


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

Figure 1. Types of sampling in quantitative research

Probability sampling

A group of statistical sampling methods used to select a sample from a population in such a
way that each member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.

• Simple random sampling – selection at random; Every member of the sampling


population has an equal chance of being selected.
• Systematic sampling – selecting every nth case; Method of selecting sample members
from a larger population according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic
interval.
• Stratified sampling – sampling within groups of the population; Involves dividing the
population into homogenous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample from
each subgroup.
• Cluster sampling – surveying whole clusters of the population sampled at random;
Selection of clusters of elementary units instead of individual units.
• Multi-stage sampling – sampling clusters sampled at random; sampling done in two or
more stages and may involve more than one sampling method.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 42


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

Non-probability sampling

Selecting samples from a population using non-random methods.

Selection may be based on criteria like availability, accessibility, geographical proximity, or


expert knowledge of the individuals the in order to answer the research question.

The probability or chances of being selected cannot be determined.

• Convenience sampling – sampling those most convenient; May result to biased


sample that does not represent the whole population.
• Voluntary sampling – the sample is self-selected
• Quota sampling – convenience sampling within groups of the population; The
population is grouped and researcher have to fill a quota based on people who match
the characteristics of each group.
• Purposive sampling – hand-picking supposedly typical or interesting cases; researcher
make a conscious decision on what the sample needs to include and choose
participants accordingly; also called judgemental sampling.
• Dimensional sampling – multi-dimensional quota sampling.
• Snowball sampling – building up a sample through informants; sampling method used
for hard to reach population; the researcher may start by finding one person who is
willing to participate and ask to be introduced to other persons with the same
characteristic of interest.

Other kinds of sampling

• Event sampling – using routine or special events as the basis for sampling
• Time sampling – recognizing that different parts of the day, week or year may be
significant

Methods of drawing a random sample

1. fishbowl draw – if your total population is small, an easy procedure is to number each
element using separate slips of paper for each element, put all the slips into a box and
then pick them out one by one without looking, until the number of slips selected equals
the sample size you decided upon. This method is used in some lotteries.

2. Computer program – there are a number of programs that can help you to select a
random sample.
○ SPSS
○ SAS
○ STATA
○ MS Excel
1. A table of randomly generated numbers – most books on research methodology
and statistics include a table of randomly generated numbers in their appendices You
can select your sample using these tables according to the procedure

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 43


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

Sampling with or without replacement

Random sampling can be selected using two different systems:

1. sampling without replacement;


2. sampling with replacement.

sampling without replacement. But this is contrary to our basic definition of randomization; that
is, each element has an equal and independent chance of selection.

sampling with replacement, the selected element is replaced in the sampling population and
if it is selected again, it is discarded and the next one is selected.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 44


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

Figure 2. The concept of sampling

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 45


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

Figure 3. Sampling strategies

Summary

• Sampling, in a way, is a trade-off between accuracy and resources.


• Through sampling you make an estimate about the information of interest.
• You do not find the true population mean.
• Two opposing philosophies underpin the selection of sampling units in quantitative and
qualitative research.
• In quantitative studies a sample is supposed to be selected in such a way that it
represents the study population, which is achieved through randomization.
• However, the selection of a sample in qualitative research is guided by your judgement
as to who is likely to provide you with complete and diverse information. This is a non-
random process.
• Sample size does not occupy a significant place in qualitative research and it is
determined by the data saturation point while collecting data instead of being fixed in
advance.
• In quantitative research, sampling is guided by three principles, one of which is that
the greater the sample size, the more accurate the estimate of the true population
mean, given that everything else remains the same.
• The inferences drawn from a sample can be affected by both the size of the sample
and the extent of variation in the sampling population.
• Sampling designs can be classified as random/probability sampling designs, non-
random/ non-probability sampling designs and ‘mixed’ sampling designs.
• For a sample to be called a random sample, each element in the study population must
have an equal and independent chance of selection.
• Three random designs were discussed: simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling and cluster sampling.
• The use of the fishbowl technique, the table of random numbers and specifically
designed computer programs are three commonly used methods of selecting a
probability sample.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 46


MEDT 18: INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE RESEARCH
MODULE (LABORATORY)

• There are five non-probability sampling designs: quota, accidental, judgemental,


expert and snowball.
• Each is used for a different purpose and in different situations in both quantitative and
qualitative studies. In quantitative studies their application is underpinned by the
sample size whereas the data saturation point determines the ‘sample size’ in
qualitative studies.
• Systematic sampling is classified under the ‘mixed’ category as it has the properties of
both probability and non-probability sampling designs.
• In qualitative research, the question of sample size is less important, as your aim is to
explore, not quantify, the extent of variation for which you are guided by reaching
saturation point in terms of new findings.

Pre-test Feedback

1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True

References

Blaxter, Loraine Hughes Christina and Malcolm (2010). How to Research 4th ed Open
University Press Mc Graw Hill

Ranjit Kumar. (2011). Research Methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners Third
Edition. SAGE Publications.

CAJILIS, CUYO & RAMOS (2024) 47

Common questions

Powered by AI

The certainty of inferences drawn from a sample is influenced by two main factors: sample size and the extent of population variation. Larger sample sizes typically provide more accurate findings compared to smaller ones . Additionally, a high variation in the sampling population increases uncertainty, requiring larger samples for accurate estimations, whereas a homogeneous population allows for reasonably accurate inferences even from smaller samples .

Systematic sampling is considered a 'mixed' category because, although it uses a probability-based approach in selecting every nth member from a random starting point, it may inadvertently introduce patterns that deviate from true randomization and thus embody aspects of non-random selection . Unlike simple random sampling where each element has an equal chance of being selected independently, systematic sampling can reflect hidden periodicities in the population that affect randomness .

A sampling frame is a list identifying all elements within the study population and is essential for random sampling, as it allows each unit an equal chance of being selected . An incomplete sampling frame can result in selection bias, where certain elements of the population have no chance of being selected, thereby compromising the representativeness of the sample and the validity of inferences drawn from it .

Random sampling ensures that each unit in the study population has an equal and independent chance of being selected, which is crucial for minimizing bias in the sample selection process . An unbiased sample is important for accurately estimating the population parameters, as it reflects the true characteristics of the study population without being skewed by conscious or unconscious selection biases .

A researcher might prefer stratified sampling over simple random sampling when the population is composed of distinct subgroups that are homogeneous within but heterogeneous between them . Stratified sampling ensures that each subgroup is adequately represented in the sample, which is useful for achieving better precision in estimates for specific population characteristics and for comparing differences across subgroups .

In qualitative research, sampling is guided by the intent to gather comprehensive and diverse information from a subset deemed rich in insights concerning the research question . Factors to consider include the research objectives, nature of the research question, the needed depth of understanding, and logistical constraints like time and resources. The researcher should aim for data saturation, where no new information emerges from additional data collection, rather than pre-determining a set sample size .

Cluster sampling is advantageous in large and geographically dispersed populations because it reduces the costs and logistical challenges associated with data collection by sampling groups of units rather than individual units . However, this method may introduce greater sampling error compared to individual sampling methods, as each cluster may possess internal heterogeneity that is not fully representative of the population, requiring larger clusters or multiple stages to maintain precision .

Mixed sampling designs incorporate elements of both probability and non-probability sampling by combining systematic sampling's probabilistic component with non-probability features, such as incorporating expert judgment or convenience in selecting certain part of the sample . This approach leverages the strengths and addresses the limitations of both methods, allowing for flexibility in design and potentially richer data collection while maintaining some level of generalizability .

In quantitative research, sampling seeks to represent the study population, achieved through randomization, and the greater the sample size, the more accurate the estimate of the true population mean becomes, given other conditions remain constant . On the other hand, qualitative sampling is based on judgment to choose who is likely to provide comprehensive and diverse information. This selection is a non-random process, and the sample size is determined by the data saturation point rather than being fixed in advance .

Using non-probability sampling methods like convenience sampling can lead to biased samples that do not represent the whole population, limiting the generalizability of research findings . Since the probability of selection cannot be determined, these methods may overrepresent or underrepresent particular segments of the population, thereby affecting the accuracy and reliability of the study's inferences .

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