DYSMEBel222/221

Basic Electronics Engineering/Lab

ENGR. RENY BOY S. NAMALATA, ECE

Instructor, School of Mechanical Engineering

Declaration:
This learning module is an exclusive property of Dr. Yanga’s Colleges, Inc., as an essential part of the
REIMAGINED Learning Program for the Academic Year 2020-2021, and shall only be used by and for
DYCIans. No part of this learning module shall be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, and/or sold, without the
consent of DYCI.
 <<Module No. 4>>

<< Semiconductor: Diode >>

This module allows the student to understand that how the diode operates through
biasing method. Hence, students will learn how to use a voltage to cause the diode to
conduct current in one direction and block it in the other direction.
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. analyze diode construction and operation by understanding the performance through
biasing: forward bias and reverse bias
2. the effect of temperature in both forward and reverse bias

A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which
half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and
depletion region in between. The p region is called the anode and is connected to a
conductive terminal. The n region is called the cathode and is connected to a second
conductive terminal. The basic diode structure and schematic symbol are shown in figure
1.

Figure 1. Basic structure and symbol of a diode (Floyd, 2012)

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Typical Diode Packages

Several common physical configurations of through-hole mounted diodes are illustrated

in Figure 2 . The anode (A) and cathode (K) are indicated on a diode in several ways,
depending on the type of package. The cathode is usually marked by a band, a tab, or
some other feature. On those packages where one lead is connected to the case, the case
is the cathode.

Figure 2. Typical diode packages with terminal identification. The letter K is used for
cathode to avoid confusion with certain electrical quantities that are represented by C
(Floyd, 2012)

Before we will proceed, we will first discuss biasing.

What is biasing?

Biasing in electronics means establishing predetermined voltages or currents at various

points of an electronic circuit for the purpose of establishing proper operating conditions
in electronic components.

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Unbiased Diode:

 When no voltage supplied to a rectifier diode then it is called as an Unbiased

Diode, N-side will have a majority number of electrons, and very few numbers of
holes (due to thermal excitation) whereas the P- side will have a majority charge
carriers holes and very few numbers of electrons.

Figure 3. Image of an unbiased Diode (Physics and RadioElectronics, n.d)

 In this process, free electrons from N-side will diffuse (spread) into the P side and
recombine takes place in holes present there, leaving +ve immobile (not
moveable) ions in N- side and creating -ve immobile ions in the P side of the
diode.

 The immobile ions in the n-type side near the junction edge. Similarly, the
immobile ions in the p-type side near the junction edge. Due to this, numbers of
positive ions and negative ions will accumulate at the junction. This region so
formed is called as depletion region.

 At this region, a static electric field called as Barrier Potential is created across the
PN junction of the diode.

 It opposes the further migration of holes and electrons across the junction.

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There are two biasing techniques of the diode:
1. Forward Bias
2. Reverse Bias

Forward bias

Forwad bias is the condition that allows current through the pn junction. Figure 4 shows a
dc voltage source connected by conductive material (contacts and wire) across a diode in
the direction to produce forward bias. This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS.
The resistor limits the forward current to a value that will not damage the diode. Notice
that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the positive
side is connected to the p region. This is one requirement for forward bias. A second
requirement is that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential.

Figure 4. A diode connected for forward bias (Floyd, 2012)

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A fundamental picture of what happens when a diode is forward-biased is shown in Figure
5. Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-voltage source “pushes” the
free electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region, toward the pn junction. This
flow of free electrons is called electron current. The negative side of the source also
provides a continuous flow of electrons through the external connection (conductor) and
into the n region as shown. The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free
electrons for them to overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region and move on
through into the p region. Once in the p region, these conduction electrons have lost
enough energy to immediately combine with holes in the valence band.

Figure 5. A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers and the voltage
due to the barrier potential across the depletion region (Floyd, 2012)

Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region, simply because they have lost
too much energy overcoming the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band. Since
unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence
electrons toward the left end of the p region. The holes in the p region provide the medium
or “pathway” for these valence electrons to move through the p region. The valence
electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left. The holes, which are the
majority carriers in the p region, effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the
junction, as you can see in Figure 5. This effective flow of holes is the hole current. You
can also view the hole current as being created by the flow of valence electrons through
the p region, with the holes providing the only means for these electrons to flow.

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As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external connection (conductor) and
to the positive side of the bias-voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p region; at
the same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in the metal conductor. Recall
that the conduction band in a conductor overlaps the valence band so that it takes much less
energy for an electron to be a free electron in a conductor than in a semiconductor and that
metallic conductors do not have holes in their structure. There is a continuous availability
of holes effectively moving toward the pn junction to combine with the continuous stream
of electrons as they come across the junction into the p region.

The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced.
As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the pn
junction, the number of negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and negative
ions during forward bias causes the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in figure 6.

Figure 6. The depletion region narrows and a voltage drop is produced across the pn
junction when the diode is forward-biased. (Floyd, 2012)

The Effect of the Barrier Potential During Forward Bias

Recall that the electric field between the positive and negative ions in the depletion region on
either side of the junction creates an “energy hill” that prevents free electrons from diffusing across
the junction at equilibrium. This is known as the barrier potential.

When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias-
voltage source to overcome the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill” and cross
the depletion region. The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion
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region is equal to the barrier potential. In other words, the electrons give up an amount of
energy equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion region. This energy
loss results in a voltage drop across the pn junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V), as
indicated in Figure 6 (b). An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n
regions due to the internal resistance of the material. For doped semiconductive material,
this resistance, called the dynamic resistance, is very small and can usually be neglected.

Reverse Bias

Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode. Figure 7
shows a dc voltage source connected across a diode in the direction to produce reverse
bias. This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias. Notice
that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the negative side
is connected to the p region. Also note that the depletion region is shown much wider than
in forward bias or equilibrium.

Figure 7. The Reverse Bias Connection (Floyd, 2012)

An illustration of what happens when a diode is reverse-biased is shown in Figure 8.

Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source “pulls” the free
electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction. As the
electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional positive ions are
created. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority
carriers.

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 Figure 8. The diode during the short transition time immediately after reverse-bias
voltage is applied (Floyd, 2012)

In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as valence
electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create
additional negative ions. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a
depletion of majority carriers. The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes
being “pulled” toward the positive side. The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional
and lasts for only a very short time after the reverse-bias voltage is applied. As the
depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases. As more of the n
and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the electric field between the positive
and negative ions increases in strength until the potential across the depletion region
equals the bias voltage, VBIAS. At this point, the transition current essentially ceases
except for a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.

Reverse Current

The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the transition current dies out
is caused by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally
generated electron-hole pairs. The small number of free minority electrons in the p
region are “pushed” toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage. When these
electrons reach the wide depletion region, they “fall down the energy hill” and combine
with the minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward the positive
bias voltage, creating a small hole current. The conduction band in the p region is at a
higher energy level than the conduction band in the n region. Therefore, the minority
electrons easily pass through the depletion region because they require no additional
energy. Reverse current is illustrated in Figure 9.
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 Figure 9. The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased diode is due to the
minority carriers from thermally generated electron-hole pairs. (Floyd, 2012)

Reverse Breakdown

Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected. However, if the
external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the
reverse current will drastically increase.

This is what happens. The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority
electrons so that as they speed through the p region, they collide with atoms with enough
energy to knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band. The newly
created conduction electrons are also high in energy and repeat the process. If one
electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit during its travel through the p
region, the numbers quickly multiply.

As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough energy
to go through the n region as conduction electrons, rather than combining with holes. The
multiplication of conduction electrons just discussed is known as the avalanche effect,
and reverse current can increase dramatically if steps are not taken to limit the current.
When the reverse current is not limited, the resulting heating will permanently damage
the diode. Most diodes are not operated in reverse breakdown, but if the current is limited
(by adding a series-limiting resistor for example), there is no permanent damage to the
diode.
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Voltage-Current Characteristics of a Diode
As we have learned, forward bias produces current through a diode and reverse bias
essentially prevents current, except for a negligible reverse current. Reverse bias prevents
current as long as the reverse-bias voltage does not equal or exceed the breakdown
voltage of the junction. Here, we will examine the relationship between the voltage and
the current in a diode on a graphical basis.

V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias:

When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This current is
called the forward current and is designated IF. Figure 10 illustrates what happens as the
forward-bias voltage is increased positively from 0 V. The resistor is used to limit the
forward current to a value that will not overheat the diode and cause damage. With 0 V
across the diode, there is no forward current. As you gradually increase the forward-bias
voltage, the forward current and the voltage across the diode gradually increase, as shown
in Figure 10 (a). A portion of the forward-bias voltage is dropped across the limiting
resistor. When the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across
the diode reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward current begins to
increase rapidly, as illustrated in Figure 10 (b). As you continue to increase the forward-
bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the
diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V. This small increase in the diode voltage
above the barrier potential is due to the voltage drop across the internal dynamic
resistance of the semiconductive material.

Figure 10. Forward-bias measurements show general changes in VF and IF as VBIAS is

increased (Floyd, 2012)
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As you can see in Figure 11(a), the forward current increases very little until the forward
voltage across the pn junction reaches approximately 0.7 V at the knee of the curve.
After this point, the forward voltage remains nearly constant at approximately 0.7 V, but
IF increases rapidly. As previously mentioned, there is a slight increase in VF above 0.7 V
as the current increases due mainly to the voltage drop across the dynamic resistance.
The IF scale is typically in mA, as indicated. Three points A, B, and C are shown on the
curve in Figure 11(a). Point A corresponds to a zero-bias condition. Point B corresponds
to Figure 11(a) where the forward voltage is less than the barrier potential of 0.7 V. Point
C corresponds to Figure 11(a) where the forward voltage approximately equals the
barrier potential. As the external bias voltage and forward current continue to increase
above the knee, the forward voltage will increase slightly above 0.7 V. In reality, the
forward voltage can be as much as approximately 1 V, depending on the forward current.

Figure 11. Relationship of voltage and current in a forward-biased diode. (Floyd, 2012)

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 Dynamic Resistance Figure 11(b) is an expanded view of the V-I characteristic curve in
part (a) and illustrates dynamic resistance. Unlike a linear resistance, the resistance of the
forward-biased diode is not constant over the entire curve. Because the resistance changes
as you move along the V-I curve, it is called dynamic or ac resistance. Internal resistances
of electronic devices are usually designated by lowercase italic r with a prime, instead of
the standard R. The dynamic resistance of a diode is designated r´d

Below the knee of the curve the resistance is greatest because the current increases very
little for a given change in voltage, r´d.

The resistance begins to decrease in the region of the knee of the curve and becomes
smallest above the knee where there is a large change in current for a given change in
voltage.

V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias

When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is only an extremely small
reverse current (IR) through the pn junction. With 0 V across the diode, there is no reverse
current. As you gradually increase the reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small reverse
current and the voltage across the diode increases. When the applied bias voltage is
increased to a value where the reverse voltage across the diode (VR) reaches the
breakdown value (VBR), the reverse current begins to increase rapidly.

As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very
rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases very little above VBR. Breakdown, with
exceptions, is not a normal mode of operation for most pn junction devices.

Graphing the V-I Curve

If you plot the results of reverse-bias measurements on a graph, you get the V-I
characteristic curve for a reverse-biased diode. A typical curve is shown in Figure 12. The
diode reverse voltage (VR) increases to the left along the horizontal axis, and the reverse
current (IR) increases downward along the vertical axis.

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 Figure 12. V-I characteristic curve for a reverse biased diode (Floyd, 2012)

There is very little reverse current (usually microA or nanoA) until the reverse voltage
across the diode reaches approximately the breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of the
curve. After this point, the reverse voltage remains at approximately VBR, but IR increases
very rapidly, resulting in overheating and possible damage if current is not limited to a
safe level. The breakdown voltage for a diode depends on the doping level, which the
manufacturer sets, depending on the type of diode. A typical rectifier diode (the most
widely used type) has a breakdown voltage of greater than 50 V. Some specialized diodes
have a breakdown voltage that is only 5 V.

The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve:

Combine the curves for both forward bias and reverse bias, and you have the complete V-
I characteristic curve for a diode, as shown in Figure 13.

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 Figure 13. The complete V-I characteristic curve for a diode (Electronics Tutorial, n.d)

Temperature Effects For a forward-biased diode and reverse biased diode:

As temperature is increased, the forward current increases for a given value of forward
voltage. Also, for a given value of forward current, the forward voltage decreases. This is
shown with the V-I characteristic curves in Figure 14. The blue curve is at room
temperature and the red curve is at an elevated temperature The barrier potential
decreases by 2 mV for each degree increase in temperature.

For a reverse-biased diode, as temperature is increased, the reverse current increases. The
difference in the two curves is exaggerated on the graph in Figure 14 for illustration.
Keep in mind that the reverse current below breakdown remains extremely small and can
usually be neglected.
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.

Figure14. Temp Effect of the Diode (Floyd, 2012)

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Bibliography:

Floyd, T.L. (2012) Electronic Devices: Electron Flow Version. Prentice Hall.

McComb, G. & Boysen, E. (2005). Electronic For Dummies. Wiley Publishing, Inc.

Physics and Radio Electronics (n.d) Forward biased p-n junction diode. Retrieved
from [Link]
circuits/semiconductor-diodes/[Link]

Electronics Tutorial (n.d). PN Junction diode. Retrieved from

[Link]

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 Name: _____________________________________________ Rating: ________________
Year and Section:_____________ Professor / Instructor:__________________________
Due of Submission: _____________________________

<< Week No 4 >>

<< Semiconductor: Diode>>

Answer as required and submit to renyboy8@[Link] with the following file name
format: [ACT 4B] FAMILY NAME, GIVEN NAME, (if more than two files put -1, -2
after given name

example [ACT 4B] NAMALATA, RENY BOY

1. Discuss the significance of the knee of the characteristic curve in forward bias.
2. On what part of the curve is a forward-biased diode normally operated?
3. Which is greater, the breakdown voltage or the barrier potential?
4. On what part of the curve is a reverse-biased diode normally operated?
5. What happens to the barrier potential when the temperature increases?

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