Lecture 1

Introduction to Literature
“Literature consists of all the books where moral truth and human passion
are touched with a certain largeness, sanity and attraction of form”
Lord Morley

“Literature is a criticism of life; but this can mean only that it is an

interpretation of life as life shapes itself in the mind of the interpreter”
Matthew Arnold

Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material.

Derived from the Latin word literature meaning "writing formed with
letters," literature most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination,
including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, and in some instances,
journalism, and song.

Importance of Literature
Literature is important because it teaches you what life is all about, how it had
been in earlier times. In today's world when everyone is running behind this
“computerized world", the students of humanities hold a great significance.
Literature is not just reading about writers or novels. It broadens one's mind,
gives the ability to think from all the perspectives, the analytical skills are
enhanced.

Functions of Literature
Literature has great function in developing human’s feelings, ideas, and interests.
Generally, the functions of literature are as follows:
The first function is literature gives knowledge which science and philosophy are
not concerned.
The second function is that literature makes the human perceive what human see,
imagine what human already know conceptually or practically.
The final function of literature is that literature relieve human—either writers
or readers—from the pressure of emotions.
Literature also functions to contribute values of human lives. In education
program, literature may give significant contribution for students’ development
and knowledge.
Appreciation of Literature
Literary appreciation is reading, understanding and making a critical judgment
of the theme, style, use of figurative and non-figurative language as well as other
elements of a literary work.
According to Donelson and Nilsen (2009), literary appreciation occurs in
seven stages:
Level 1: Pleasure and Profit (literary appreciation is a social experience)

Level 2: Decoding (literacy is developed)

Level 3: Lose yourself (reading becomes a means of escaping)

Level 4: Find yourself (discovering identity)

Level 5: Venture beyond self (‘going beyond me’, assessing the world around them)

Level 6: Variety in reading (reads widely and discusses experiences with peers)

Level 7: Aesthetic purposes (avid reader, appreciates the artistic value of reading)

Genres of Literature
Drama
Poetry
Prose (Fiction and Nonfiction)
 LECTURE 2

ELEMENTS OF POETRY & LITERATURE

DEFINITIONS OF POETRY

Poetry is when an emotion has found its thought and the thought has
found words.
(Robert Frost)

“Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in

tranquility (state of calm): However, “Poetry is the vivid feelings and
conceptions clothed in harmonious language, generally in meter.”

(William Wordsworth)

The word “poetry” is derived from the Greek polesis, meaning a

“making” or “creating”.

FUNCTION OF POETRY

The main function of a poem is to convey an idea or emotion in beautiful

language.

ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Stanza

A stanza is a popular term within poetry that refers to a smaller unit

within a poem or a verse within a song. A poem is usually composed of
multiple stanzas that are separated from each other an empty line in

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between. Usually, all stanzas are made up of equal number of lines in a
single poem.

A unit of lines grouped together is called Stanza.

A couplet is a stanza that has only 2 lines.

"Good night! Good night! Parting is such sweet sorrow
That I shall say good night till it be morrow."

A tercet is composed of 3 lines.

“An old silent pond…
A frog jumps into the pond,
splash! Silence again.”

A quatrain consists of 4 lines.

Well, it’s one for the money
Two for the show
Three to get ready
Now go, cat, go

A cinquain has 5 lines.

"Look up …
From bleakening hills
Blows down the light, first breath
Of wintry wind … look up, and scent
The snow!"

A sestet comprises 6 lines.

“And when I feel, fair creature of an hour!
That I shall never look upon thee more,
Never have relish in the faery power
Of unreflecting love! — then on the shore
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Of the wide world I stand alone, and think
Till Love and Fame to nothingness do sink.”

A sonnet is an entire poem with exactly 14 lines.

When I consider how my light is spent,

Ere half my days in this dark world and wide,
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest He returning chide;
“Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?”
I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent
That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need
Either man’s work or His own gifts. Who best
Bear His mild yoke, they serve Him best. His state
Is kingly: thousands at His bidding speed,
And post o’er land and ocean without rest;
They also serve who only stand and wait.”

Imagery

Representation of the five senses: sight, taste, touch, sound, and smell and
it also Creates mental images about a poem’s subject is called imagery.

Visual: related to things that may be seen

Auditory: related to things that may be heard
Olfactory: related to things that may be smelled
Gustatory: related to things that may be tasted
Tactile: related to things that may be touched (with the hand or some
other body part)

Symbolism

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A poem often conveys feelings, thoughts and ideas using symbols, this
technique is known as symbolism.
Examples
o The dove is a symbol of peace.
o A red rose, or the color red, stands for love.
o Black is a symbol that represents evil or death.
o A broken mirror may symbolize separation.

Simile

Simile is a comparison between two things which are essentially

dissimilar(unlike).
The comparison is directly stated through words such as like, as, than or
resembles.
o Her cheeks are red like a rose.
o He is as funny as a monkey.
o The water well was as dry as a bone.
o He is as cunning as a fox.

Metaphor
Metaphor is a comparison between two things which are essentially
dissimilar(unlike).
The comparison is implied (indirect) rather than directly stated. A
metaphor can sometimes use words like is, are, or was.
o “I wandered lonely as a cloud
that floats on high o’er vales and hills.”
o You are my sun.
o All the world's a stage.
o My life is an open book.
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Hyperbole
A hyperbole is an extreme exaggeration used to make a point.
It is like the opposite of “understatement.” It is from a Greek word
meaning “excess.”

o “I’ve told you a million times”

o I am so hungry I could eat a horse.
o He is as skinny as a toothpick.

Personification
Giving human attributes (qualities) to an animal, object or idea is called
personification.

o The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky.

o My house is a friend who protects me.
o Time flies and waits for no one.

Irony
Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their
intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words.
“Water, water, everywhere,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink.”

(“The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”)

Ironically, there is water everywhere but they do not have a single drop
of water to drink.

Paradox

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Paradox is a statement in which there is an apparent contradiction which
is actually true.
o You can save money by spending it.
(Its true that you can save money in terms of investment)
o Truth is honey which is bitter.
Its just like truth is always bitter
o “Child is father of the man.”

Rhyme
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounding words occurring at the end of
lines in poems or songs.
One, two,
Buckle my shoe;
Three, four,
Shut the door.

Rhythm

Rhythm is a series of stressed or accented syllables in a group of words,

arranged so that the reader expects a similar series to follow.

My mother ate an apple and my father ate a pear.

One way to write this to make it more obvious is to capitalize the stressed
syllables and write the unstressed syllables in lowercase letters, like this:

my MOTH-er ATE an AP-ple AND my FATH-er ATE a PEAR

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of a particular consonant or a vowel sound

in the initial stressed syllables of a series of words or phrases.

When the same consonant sound is used throughout a piece of writing.

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candy covered coconuts.

Assonance

When the same vowel sound is used in words throughout a piece of

writing.

That is the way we will pray today, okay?

Meter
The pattern of repetition of stressed (or accented) and unstressed (or
unaccented) syllables in a line of verse.
Stressed syllables tend to be longer and unstressed shorter.

Types of Meter
iambic meter trochaic meter spondaic meter
anapestic meter dactylic meter

Subdivision of Meter

1. Qualitative Meter
It contains stressed syllables with regular intervals.

2. Quantitative Meter
Quantitative meter, however, is based on syllabic weight, and not
stressed patterns.

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 ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE
PLOT

Definition
Events that form a significant pattern of action with a beginning, middle
and an end. The plot is more formally called a narrative.

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Parts/ Elements of Plot

Exposition: The beginning is often called the introduction or exposition.

Characters, setting, and conflict are introduced.

Rising Action: A set of conflicts and crises that constitute the part of a
play's or story's plot leading up to the climax. (Tension builds)

Climax: The turning point of the action in the plot of a play or story. The
climax represents the point of greatest tension in the work. The critical point
at which the central character is about to win or lose all.

Falling Action: (or Resolution or Denouement)

In the plot of a story or play, the action following the climax of the work that
moves it towards its denouement or resolution.

Plot Techniques:

1. Suspense
2. Flashback (Past)
3. Telescoping
4. Foreshadowing (Future)

Conflict:
A struggle between opposing forces in a story or play, usually resolved by
the end of the work.

Types Of Conflict

Internal Conflict: A struggle that takes place within the character’s

own mind. (Man vs. Self)

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Examples:
Love/ hate, Sympathy/ blame, Fear/sentimentality,
Understanding/ unyielding & Plaint/resistant.

External Conflict: A struggle the character has with someone or

something outside of him or herself.
Examples: Man vs. Man / Man vs. Nature / Man vs. Society

Characterization

Character:
A figure in a literary work (personality, gender, age, etc.).
Protagonist/ Hero

Antagonist / villain

Types of Characters
Static Character: A character that stays the same throughout the story.

Dynamic Character: A character that changes due to events in the story.

Flat character: A character which we know very limited information about.

Round Character: A character which we know a lot of information about.

Setting
The place or type of surroundings where something is positioned or where
an event takes place. (Time and Place)
Mood
Characters’ feelings
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Reader’s feelings – (how the book makes you feel)

Theme
The central idea or lesson about life the story conveys.
Examples: Death, Growing up, Love, Hate etc.

Point of View

Third Person

Limited

Omniscient

Omniscient, in which the narrator knows everything about the

characters;

Limited which allows the narrator to know some things about the
characters but not everything.

DRAMA
A drama is a story enacted onstage for a live audience.

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Tragedy
In the Greek sense, a play that ends with the death of at least one of the main
characters. In modern usage refers to a play that doesn’t have a happy
ending.

Comedy
A comedy is a play that ends happily. The plot usually centers on a romantic
conflict.

ELEMENTS OF STORY INCLUDE:

1. Setting
2. Characters
3. Plot
4. Point of view
5. Theme
6. Image
7. Symbol

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 Lecture 3
I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD
BY WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 1770 – 1850
Stanza 1

I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

In the first stanza the poet describes himself as alone and lonely, detached even
from nature as, cloudlike, he floats on high o'er vales and hills. Finally, he came
across a crowd of daffodils that grew beside the lake, the flowers were large in
number and golden in color. He could see them everywhere under the trees and
by the lakeside. Air that was blowing was pleasant, and in this breeze the
daffodils seemed to the poet as moving their heads pleasantly as if they were
dancing and fluttering.

Stanza 2
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the Milky Way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

In the second stanza the speaker goes into more detail about the daffodils. They
reminded him of the Milky Way, because there were so many flowers packed
together that they seemed to be never ending like endless group of twinkling
stars in the sky. The speaker guesses that there were ten thousand daffodils,
which were "Tossing their heads in sprightly dance"(with happiness and joy).

Stanza 3

The waves beside them danced; but they

Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company:
I gazed--and gazed--but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:

In the third stanza the speaker compares the waves of the lake to the waves of
daffodils and decides that even though the lake is "sparkling," the daffodils win
because they have more "glee." He then comments that he, like any other poet,
could not help but be happy "in such a jocund company." He looked at the scene
for a long time, but while he was there he was unable to understand what he
had gained from the experience.
Stanza 4

For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.

In the fourth and final stanza the poet describes what he gained from the
experience. Afterwards, when he was lonely or feeling "pensive," he could
remember the daffodils, seeing them with his "inward eye," and be content. The
"inward eye" expresses what Wordsworth felt to be a deeper, truer spiritual
vision. A person cannot share his or her own spiritual vision completely with
others, and so it is a form of "solitude." But its truth and beauty make it
"blissful." When the memory of the flowers and the lake flashes into his head,
he feels happy again. It’s almost like the same experience he had while
"wandering" through nature at the beginning of the poem, when the real
daffodils pushed the loneliness out of his head. The memory of the daffodils is
as good as the real thing. His heart is set to dancing, just like the flowers. He
dances along "with" them – they are his cheerful companions once again.
Symbolism

The first aspect of the daffodils' symbolism exists outside any associations
made in the poem. In the United Kingdom, the blooming of daffodils
traditionally symbolizes the arrival of spring. So the daffodils in Wordsworth's
poem already act as heralds of renewal, rebirth and new beginnings.
Personification

Three different aspects of nature are personified in the poem. The first
personification occurs in the first line. The speaker comparing himself to a
cloud—which is, in fact, the reverse of personification. But the speaker
characterizes their "wandering" as "lonely," and specifically alike to the
loneliness of "a cloud." In reality, loneliness is a human emotion and, of course,
not one felt by clouds.
The main personification applies to the daffodils. They are described as a
"crowd" and a "host", and on three occasions they are said to be "dancing."
Dance is particularly important—people dance as an expression of joy, and/or
as a method of togetherness.
The third personification is in line 13, when the waves are also described as
dancing. Here, there is a sense that the speaker is perceiving nature in motion,
and though the daffodils "outdo" the waves in joyfulness, the overall effect is
that the entire scene contains an essence fundamental to human happiness.
Form

The form of "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" is relatively simple. The poem
consists of four sestets (six-line stanzas), adding up to twenty-four lines in total.
Meter
The meter in "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" is consistently iambic tetrameter,
with a few careful and deliberate exceptions. Generally, the iambic tetrameter
has an almost walking pace in line with the poem's main set-up: the speaker
"wandering" in the countryside.
Rhyme Scheme

The rhyme scheme follows a clear formula throughout the poem. Each stanza
follows its own ABABCC scheme:
• Stanza 1: ABABCC
• Stanza 2: ABABCC
• Stanza 3: ABABCC
• Stanza 4: ABABCC

Poetic Devices
Simile

o lonely as a cloud
o as the stars that shine
Hyperbole
o Ten thousand saw I at a glance
o stretched in never-ending line
Personification

o a crowd, a host, of golden daffodils

o dancing in the breeze.
o Tossing their heads in sprightly dance
o waves beside them danced
o inward eye

Questions
What is the main idea of ‘I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud’?
The poem’s main idea deals with the role of nature in the poet’s life. If one has
the eyes to see it, one can comprehend the serene beauty of simplicity within
seconds. For that, the mind should be as thoughtless as a lonely cloud that floats
aimlessly over the valleys and hills.
What is the message of ‘Daffodils’?

Through this poem, Wordsworth conveys a vital message that includes how
nature can be of the most incredible resort when one is feeling low or pensive.
It is a source of great energy that can rejuvenate the soul.
When did the poem “I wandered lonely as a cloud” published?

Wordsworth published the first version of this poem, 'I wandered lonely as a
Cloud', in 1807, in a collection called 'Poems in Two Volumes'. He altered it
several times, but the final version was published in his 'Collected Poems' in
1815.
How many daffodils did the poet see?

The poet says that he saw ten thousand daffodils at a glance. He says so in order
to highlight that the whole area along the lake was covered with blooming,
uncountable daffodils.
What is the color of the daffodils?

Not all daffodils are yellow! Golden yellow daffodils are an iconic spring flower,
but these cheerful flowering bulbs do come in other colors.
What are the two moods of the poet?

The two moods of the poet are vacant mood and pensive mood.
 LECTURE 4
Fiction , Nonfiction, Characteristics of Fiction & Elements
of Fiction
Fiction
Fiction refers to literature that is not grounded in real-life events but is made up
or created from a writer’s imagination.
Fiction is a literary genre that encompasses imaginative storytelling. It involves
the creation of characters, settings, events, and narratives that do not exist in the
real world.

Nonfiction
Nonfiction refers to factual stories based on real people, information, or events.
Nonfiction, by contrast, refers to factual stories about real people, places, and
events. These insights, experiences, or explanations are grounded in reality and
are used to educate, persuade, or document true events and occurrences.
The word nonfiction essentially means “not fiction” or “not false. Nonfiction can
encompass works in many different categories, such as business, cooking, travel,
biography, religion, art, music, languages, pets, crafts, and health and fitness.

Characteristics of Fiction
1. Strong emphasis on character development

Literary fiction focuses on how a character develops from start to finish, making it
more introspective than its genre counterparts. One way of putting it is that
literary fiction wants to make sense of our world by taking a close look at human
emotions.
2. Use of allegory, metaphor, or symbolism
Literary fiction works usually use allegory and symbolism to convey its deeper
meaning, which is more than what we see on the surface.
3. Higher-level vocabulary and ample use of imagery
Because of its high literary standard, these types of books tend to use higher-level
vocabulary and rely on plenty of imagery to get their point across.

4. Plot points aren’t clear-cut

Literary fiction often challenges readers to think differently about certain issues,
so the ending may be abrupt, ambiguous, or left to the reader’s interpretation.
It also does not follow a fixed formula for plot structure, and usually takes you on
a journey into a person’s heart and soul instead.

5. Philosophical themes such as human nature or free will

Because literary fiction deals with deep subjects, they can be challenging to read.
The good news is that they tend to delve into these issues with unparalleled
honesty.
Elements of fiction
1. Character
2. Plot
3. Setting
4. Theme
5. Point of View
6. Style
7. Tone
 LECTURE 5
Short Story
The Gift of the Magi
The story was allegedly written at Pete's Tavern on Irving Place in New York City.
The story was initially published in The New York Sunday World under the title
"Gifts of the Magi" on December 10, 1905. It was first published in book form in
the O. Henry anthology The Four Million in April 1906.

Summary
It is Christmas Eve. Della bemoans(regrets) her meager(insufficient) savings of
$1.87, accumulated through months of scrimping at the grocery, butcher, and
vegetable vendor. She collapses onto her worn sofa in tears.

Della is a young woman in a relationship with Jim Dillingham Young, with whom
she lives in an inexpensive apartment that costs only eight dollars per week and
doesn't have a functioning doorbell.

No longer weeping, Della remains unsure about whether she will be able to get Jim
a satisfactory Christmas gift.

She suddenly recalls the pier-glass—a slender mirror positioned between the
apartment's windows—and stands before it, allowing her hair to cascade down to
its full extent.

The narrator then details the couple's most cherished possessions: Della's lengthy,
brown hair that reaches past her knees and Jim's gold watch, a family heirloom
from his grandfather.

These items are like King Solomon's riches and the Queen of Sheba's jewels.

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Della dashes outside and down the stairs to a hair salon operated by Madame
Sofronie. After a short interaction, during which Madame Sofronie assesses Della's
hair, Della sells the hairdresser her beautiful tresses for 20 dollars.

For two hours, Della searches for the ideal gift for Jim. She ultimately chooses a
modest platinum chain for his watch, likening the watch's unadorned and valuable
nature to Jim's similarly unpretentious yet valuable character.

Della goes back home to style her hair in curls and get dinner ready while awaiting
Jim. She whispers a prayer, hoping that Jim will still consider her beautiful despite
her shorter hair.

As Jim walks through the door, he stops short, gazing at Della's hair with a blank
expression. Della approaches Jim, explaining that she cut and sold her hair to
purchase his Christmas gift. Jim's gaze lingers, and Della reiterates that her hair is
gone—but her love for him remains boundless. At last, Jim embraces Della and
tosses a wrapped gift onto the table.

He assures her that no haircut could lessen his affection for her, but he was taken
aback because of the present he got her. Della unwraps the package, revealing a
stunning set of tortoiseshell combs she has long wanted for her hair.

She squeals with delight before breaking into tears, and Jim consoles her before
she recalls her own gift for him. She produces the watch chain and requests to see
Jim's watch so she can attach the chain.

Jim sinks into the couch with a grin, suggesting they set their gifts aside for now
because they're too precious to use immediately. But then he confesses that he
sold the watch to acquire the set of combs for Della.

They opt to enjoy dinner, and the narrator concludes the tale with a brief reflection
on the magi, who were wise men who pioneered the tradition of giving Christmas

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presents. The narrator likens Jim and Della to the magi, asserting that, of all the
gift-givers in the world, this couple has the most wisdom.

Themes
Value vs. Materialism

"The Gift of the Magi" focuses on two young lovers who have very little in terms of
material possessions.

The story's opening emphasizes their impoverished circumstances—the worn-out

couch, the absence of a mirror, the cheap apartment, and the non-functioning
doorbell.

Despite this, the narrator notes that Jim always comes home to be "greatly hugged.
Which is all very good."

Della and Jim's financial situation doesn't seem to impact their warm home life, as
the emotional significance of their relationship surpasses their material
shortcomings.

When Della discovers the chain for Jim's watch (which is "simple and chaste in
design" but valuable in its essence alone), she draws a parallel between the chain
and Jim, who possesses inner worth despite his modest earnings.

The narrator likens Jim's watch and Della's hair to King Solomon and the Queen of
Sheba, an allusion highlighting the significance of these items to the couple, even
if they aren't truly analogous to a vast collection of treasures and jewels.

This comparison thus illustrates the inherently subject nature of value. The
narrator clarifies this notion by stating, "Eight dollars a week or a million a year—

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what is the difference? A mathematician or a wit would give you the wrong
answer."

Love

Della's primary concern is that her savings, accumulated through frugality, are
insufficient to purchase a fitting Christmas gift for Jim.

In her view, the main hindrance poverty presents to her happiness is the
constraint it places on expressing her love.

Following the story's unexpected conclusion, Jim reclines on the couch and grins,
even after discovering that their presents are now pointless.

The significance lies not in the gifts themselves, but in the act of giving: both Jim
and Della now know that they would willingly forfeit their most cherished
belongings for one another.

Their love thus prevails over all else.

Instead of mere objects, they gave each other the gift of love.

Sacrifice

Della and Jim begin with only two cherished belongings: Della's beautiful hair and
Jim's gold watch.

To overcome their financial constraints and offer a meaningful Christmas gift to

one another, each relinquishes the item they hold dearest.

However, these sacrifices end up being somewhat pointless, as the purchased gifts
cannot be utilized.

It could be argued that they end up even more impoverished than they were at the
beginning of the story, but the narrator implies that their relationship has gained
value through their selflessness and sacrifice.

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This, in turn, suggests that a gift's value lies in the intention, generosity, and
sacrifice behind it, not in its material worth.

Beauty

"The Gift of the Magi" juxtaposes the concepts of inner beauty and worth with
outward appearances.

The story starts with a portrayal of dreary surroundings while still suggesting that
Della and Jim lead a warm domestic life.

As Della scrutinizes the watch chain, she thinks about its external appearance and
its true value, comparing both to Jim's appearance and value.

Neither the watch chain nor Jim have much in the way of external embellishment,
but they possess remarkable inner qualities.

Della is also concerned that Jim might not find her attractive once she sells her
hair.

However, when he sees her and recovers from the shock of her new haircut, he
reassures her that no "haircut or shave or shampoo [...] could make me like my girl
any less."

With this in mind, the story suggests that there are more important things in life
and love than superficial beauty.

Characters
Della

A young woman with beautiful hair, Della cares more about finding her partner,
Jim, a good Christmas present than she cares about her own appearance.

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Because she doesn’t have much money, she decides to cut off and sell her hair so
she can buy Jim a chain for his watch—an act that underscores her selflessness
and her devotion to Jim.

Jim

Jim is a young man who makes very little money but doesn’t let this stop him from
buying his partner, Della, a thoughtful Christmas present.

To finance the present, he sells his beloved watch, using the money to buy Della a
set of combs she has been wanting.

When he realizes Della sold her hair to buy him a watch chain, he appreciates the
irony and focuses on spending time with her instead of obsessing over gifts.

Madame Sofronie

Madame Sofronie is the owner of the hair salon where Della sells her hair.

She is characterized as large and cold, and her interaction with Della is curt and
straightforward.

She promptly assesses Della's hair and determines that it's worth 20 dollars.

Her demeanor starkly contrasts Della and Jim's, who prioritize their love and
emotions over material worth.

To Della, her hair represents something unique and treasured, while for Madame
Sofronie, it is merely worth the monetary value it can yield.

Symbolism
Della’s Long Hair

Della's hair symbolizes her beauty and youth.

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Reaching past her knees, her hair must have started growing when she was very
young, and its sentimental value for her contrasts sharply with Madame Sofronie's
indifferent assessment of its monetary worth.

Along with Jim's watch, Della's hair is something that the couple treasures, so the
fact that she sells it to buy Jim a gift represents her deep love for him.

Jim’s Watch

Jim's watch embodies his connection to his own family history, since it's
something that has been passed through the generations.

Additionally, the watch represents time, which Jim dedicates to Della by working
long hours to provide for their household and by spending his free time with her.

As the narrator points out near the conclusion, Jim never comes home late from
work. Furthermore, the watch's gold can symbolize various aspects, such as purity,
wealth (which the couple lacks), inner worth, and enduring value.

Setting

"The Gift of the Magi" takes place in a unnamed city, presumably New York City,
on Christmas Eve during the early 1900s. Most of the action occurs at Jim and
Della's small, shabby apartment. In the story, O. Henry alludes to the magi or the
wisemen, who in the Bible brought gifts to baby Jesus. The biblical story of the
magi is echoed in the setting of O. Henry's "The Gift of the Magi" - it is
Christmastime and the apartment, like the manger, is quite humble.

7
Questions

1. What is the message of The Gift of the Magi?

"The Gift of the Magi" expresses that love is more important than appearances. In
this short story, each character gives up that which he or she most treasures. Jim
gives up his watch, which makes him look important in front of others; Della gives
up her hair,

2. What is the main idea of The Gift of the Magi?

The main idea or central theme of the story is that true love is more important
than money or possessions. This is shown through both Jim and Della's sacrifices
for the other. Jim sells his prized watch in order to buy Della a set of combs for her
hair.

3. Why did Della sell her hair?

Della is most proud of her beautiful long hair. But she really wants to buy that gold
chain for Jim's watch. Too bad she only has $1.87. So, she decides to sell her hair
to a woman who makes wigs and other hair articles.

4. What does Jim's watch symbolize?

Jim's gold watch Symbol Analysis. Jim's watch holds sentimental value for him as
well, having been passed down from generation to generation. In this way, the
watch represents Jim's ties to the family he grew up in—the family he leaves in
order to make a new family with Della.

5. What is the main theme in The Gift of the Magi?

The main theme of The Gift of the Magi is love. Della and Jim love each other so
much that they sacrifice their most prized possessions in order to give each other
a Christmas gift.

8
6. What is the background of the story The Gift of the Magi?
O. Henry is said to have created the character of Della based on his wife Athol.
When Henry and Athol were young and didn't have much money, Athol sold her
handkerchief in order to buy a Christmas present for Henry.

7. What is the conclusion of The Gift of the Magi?

At the end of The Gift of the Magi, Della and Jim realize that the gifts they purchased
for each other cannot be used. Della bought Jim a chain for his watch, which he
sold to buy her hair combs. Della sold her hair in order to buy Jim's watch chain.
In the end, the narrator explains that their gifts are the best gifts because they
show how much they love each other.

8. Why did O. Henry write The Gift of the Magi?

O. Henry's purpose in writing 'The Gift of the Magi' was to show that material
possessions are not as important as true love.

9. What is the main conflict in the gift of Magi?

In "The Gift of the Magi," the main conflict is that Della does not have enough
money saved to buy the gift she thinks Jim deserves.

10. Why did Della sell her hair?

Della is most proud of her beautiful long hair. But she really wants to buy that gold
chain for Jim's watch.

[Link] were Jim and Della said to be magi?

Jim and Della are called magi because they had sacrificed their most prized
possessions to give each other appropriate Christmas presents.

12. Why is Jim surprised when he sees Della?

He bought her a gift that she can't use.

9
 LECTURE 6
Essay
Of Studies – Francis Bacon

Text
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for
delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for
ability, is in the judgement and disposition of business. For expert men can
execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels,
and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned.
To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament,
is affectation; to make judgement wholly by their rules, is the humour of a
scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural
abilities are like natural plants that need proyning by study; and studies
themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded
in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and
wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom
without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and
confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but
to weigh and consider. Some books are to be taste, others to be swallowed, and
some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in
parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and
with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and
extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important
arguments, and the meaner sort books; else distilled books are like common
distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a read
man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need
have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need a present wit and if he read
little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not.
Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtitle; natural
philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend. Abeunt Studia
in mores: [Studies pass into character.] Nay there is no stond on impediment
in the wit, but may be wrought out by fit studies: like as disease of the body may
have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting
for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head;
and the like. So f a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for
in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again.
If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the
schoolmen; for they are cymini sectors. If he be not apt to beat over matters,
and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the
lawyers’ cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt.

Summary
Study as an activity, in whatever form, brings us joy and enhances our thinking,
speaking and writing ability adding charm to our personality. Study is always a
private activity; which people engage in when they are alone or in the privacy
of their homes. It helps them in relaxation after a strenuous routine, when the
body and mind need to slow down. It sharpens our intellect helping us to judge
things soundly. It helps us to go about our life’s business in a more capable way.

It enables the learned men, who have studied extensively, to critically examine
issues, and arrive at the right conclusion. They can garner data, facts and
arguments or against a particular view rationally. Such intelligent analysis of
facts improves the soundness and quality of their judgment. However, over-
indulgence in studies leads to undesirable consequences. Setting aside long
hours in a day to study will make a man lazy. Overuse of the wisdom to analyze
ordinary commonplace issues may make the man appear pretentious and
vainglorious. Sticking too much to rules to asses situations and decide on action
may invite derision from others.

Studying adds discretion and perfection to human nature. Experiences in life

supplements such honing of nature. A person’s abilities inherited by birth are
raw. Only when they are carefully worked upon and honed, the in-born abilities
yield the best benefits to us. Studying is the whetstone that we use to sharpen
our abilities. But inferences from study may lead to imprecise and misleading
conclusions. In such situations, one’s experience in life comes in handy to arrive
at the right conclusion. So, experience is very valuable as it supplements
studies.

People who are cunning and deceitful have no appreciation for studies as they
accomplish their objectives through many crooked ways. Simple folks,
however, greatly value the role of studies in human life. Wise people inherently
draw upon the ideas obtained from their studies while solving life’s countless
problems. The aim of reading and acquiring knowledge must not be to
aggressively refute other’s views or accept the writer’s views as gospel truth. It
should also not be to engage in pointless discussion and argumentation.
Studying should enable us to weigh facts and analyze them rationally.

Books of varying content and genre are to be made use of differently. Some may
be given a cursory reading , some others can be quickly sifted through. Other
important books are to be read slowly and minutely so as to truly fathom the
meaning and underlying sense. One can ask an assistant to read a book and
prepare a short summary of it. But such practice should be followed for
obtaining guidance on matters of lesser importance. There are some books
which are, in fact, shortened already.

Discussing with others about the contents of a book imparts special practical
skills to the reader. Writing removes all the residual weaknesses and ignorance
from the person and enables him to remember the contents of a book. So,
writing helps to memorize facts. If a person is bashful so as not to discuss his
reading with others, he will not be able to improve his wit. If he does not read,
he will remain a somewhat stupid person. Studying history makes a man wiser;
studying poetry makes a man wittier: mathematics gives sound logical sense,
and philosophy imparts valuable lessons on morality.

Wit is a God-given gift. It is present in everybody. However, it can be sharpened

by selective studying. This is akin to the way certain weaknesses of the human
body are cured by appropriate physical exercises. Bowling is good for the stone
and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach;
riding for the head; and the like. They cure many ailments.

If a person is unable to concentrate, he will do well to study mathematics to

focus his wavering mind. In mathematics, a slight loss of concentration leads to
grave error. This makes the man to start all over again to do it. Thus, studying
mathematics restrains the mind from darting off elsewhere. If a person does
not have the ability to discern, he will be benefited by studying Schoolmen as it
trains mental ability and develops the art of expression. If a person is unable to
garner facts and manipulate them to put across his views convincingly,
studying law will help him. Thus, every deficiency of mind can be addressed by
appropriate reading.

Short Summary

Francis Bacon is one of the most interesting figures of the sixteenth century
from where the modern world begins. This age is particularly noted for its
religion, philosophy and science. He represented the age in his works about its
patriotism, high aims and lofty ideals. His earliest and chief interest in life was
the reformation of scientific method of approach. He is considered ‘the
brightest, wisest and noblest of mankind' and he is known as the father of
English Essay and the father of Modern Prose.
His essays apparently deal with the ethical qualities of men or with the matters
pertaining to the government of state. All his essays are full of practical wisdom
of life. His style is aphoristic, formal, impersonal and informative. They are full
of quotable quotes.
In the present essay Bacon describes advantages of studies. ‘Of Studies’ is one
of the most popular essays. Studies give us pleasure, embellish our
conversation and argument. It enhances the practical ability of man. Learned
men are superior to professional men, as they are better in planning, laying
down policies and overall arguments. Bacon is aware of the fact that through
practical experience alone can help the people to learn the right use of books.
Different men view at studies differently. Bacon lays down the correct method
of study. He quotes:
"Reading makeath a full man; conference ready man; and writing an exact man"
Reading, writing and conversation are all necessary to perfect and develop the
powers of man. A study of different subjects carries with it different advantages.
Studies also cure mental ailments or defects just as certain sports and physical
exercises cure specific physical ailments.

Questions
1. Who is the first English essayist?

Francis Bacon is the first English essayist.

2. To which age does Bacon belong to?

Bacon belongs to the Renaissance Age.

3. What was the title given to Bacon?

The title given to Bacon was ‘Viscount St. Albans’.

4. What are the advantages of studying books?

By studying books the reader can get delight, use his/her study as an ornament,
and increase his/her ability.

5. How are studies perfected?

Studies are perfected through practical experience.

6. In how many classes is man divided in "Of Studies"

In "Of Studies" man is divided into three classes: crafty men, simple men and
wise men.
7. Why should a man read books?

According to Bacon, a man should read books to “weigh and consider” i.e., to
think about the contents and judge them.

8. Who is the wise man according to Bacon?

According to Bacon, the man who uses studies properly is a wise man.

9. Whom does Bacon think lazy?

Bacon thinks the person lazy who spends too much time in studies.

10. What kind of style did Bacon introduce to English prose?

Bacon introduced aphoristic style to English prose.

11. What does Bacon suggest for a man whose mind wanders? [NU 2015]

Bacon suggests that the man whose mind wanders should study Mathematics.

12. How many ways does study serve a man?

Study serves a man in three ways: by giving delight, by acting as an ornament

and by increasing his ability.

13. What do books serve for? [NU 2016]

Books serve for delight, for ornament, and for abilities.

14. What do you mean by "Renaissance"?

Renaissance means the re-birth or revival of classical art, culture and

literature.

15. What does the phrase 'natural abilities' mean?

The phrase ‘natural abilities’ means in born qualities.

16. What is an antithesis?

Antithesis is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together
in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.

17. What is aphorism? [NU 2017]

Aphorism is a short and wise saying which bears a truth.

18. Who are 'cymini sectores'?

'Cymini sectores' literaly mean ‘hair-splitters’ or those who are capable of

making distinctions which are normally unnoticeable to an ordinary man.

19. What is the meaning of "Abeunt studia in mores"?

The meaning of the Latin phrase ‘Abeunt studia in mores’ is that ‘studies pass
into the character’.

20. What is pragmatism?

Pragmatism is an approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the

success of their practical application.

21. What are the uses of shooting?

According to Bacon, shooting is good for the lungs and breast.

22. What is the message of Of Studies?

Bacon's essay expresses several comments in Of Studies that can be interpreted

as the following: Studying is helpful for better understanding and provides a
knowledge that develops experience, as well as a character that grows. Reading
provides delight and fun, ornament and showing off, and the ability for success.
 LECTURE 7
ONE ACT PLAY

"Medea" by Christopher Durang and Wendy Wasserstein

Summary

When the play begins, Jason, Medea's husband, has just left her and their two
children. Jason has a desire to marry Glauce, who is the daughter of the king of
Corinth: King Creon. By marrying Glauce, Jason can raise his social standing. As
told by a nurse outside the palace, Jason and Medea went through many
obstacles that led them to find refuge in Corinth.

Corinth is where they established their family and gained respect from the local
people. When Jason decided to abandon Medea and their children, Medea was
devastated. She cursed her existence and that of her children.

King Creon is afraid Medea will seek revenge for Jason's actions so he banishes
her and her children from Corinth. Medea begs for mercy and asks for one more
day before she has to leave. She is given one day and Medea immediately begins
to plan how she will seek justice. She contemplates murdering Jason, King
Creon, and Glauce. Jason tells Medea she is overreacting and that she is making
her and the children vulnerable in the public eye. He tries to defend his
reasoning for marrying Glauce by stating it is in everyone's better interest. He
offers to help Medea, but she refuses.

King Aegeus of Athens coincidentally shows up in Corinth and offers Medea

refuge in his home city. In exchange he requests Medea, who is a sorceress, to
provide him with information about which drugs will cure his sterility. Medea
is emboldened now that she has a place to seek refuge and continues to plan
her revenge. Her revenge plot now includes murdering her own children. She
justifies infanticide by stating it will make Jason suffer so much, that the
satisfaction she will feel will outweigh the pain of losing her children.
Medea pretends to sympathize with Jason. She offers Glauce a gift of a coronet
and a dress which she hopes will persuade King Creon to let Medea's children
stay in Corinth. However, the gift Medea gave to Glauce is poisoned, which kills
Glauce. King Creon is so distraught by the death of his daughter, that he
embraces her poisoned body and dies alongside her.

When a messenger provides information about the deaths, Medea barely reacts.
Earlier as she contemplated the death of her children, she was anxious and
tense. However now she is ready and confident about her plans which are
protested by the chorus.

Medea murders her children. Her grandfather, Helios, the Sun God, provides
Medea with a chariot pulled by a dragon which allows her to escape the scene.
Jason is left to suffer down below. Jason lost everything he valued and the play
closes with his tragic state.

Characters

Medea
Protagonist of the play, Medea's homeland is Colchis, an island in the Black Sea,
which the Greeks considered the edge of the earth--a territory of barbarians. A
sorceress and a princess, she used her powers and influence to help Jason
secure the Golden Fleece; then, having fallen in love with him, she fled her
country and family to live with Jason in Iolcus, his own home. During the escape
across the Mediterranean, she killed her brother and dumped him.

Jason
Jason can be considered the play's villain, though his evil stems more from
weakness than strength. A former adventurer, he abandons his wife, Medea, in
order to marry Glauce, the beautiful young daughter of Creon, King of Corinth.
Jason's tactless self-interest and whiny rationalizations of his own actions make
him a weak, unsympathetic character.

Children
The children of Jason and Medea, the children are presented as naïve. Medea
uses them as pawns in the murder of Glauce and Creon, and then kills them in
the play. Their innocent deaths provide the greatest element of pathos--the
tragic emotion of pity--in the play.

Creon
The King of Corinth, Creon banishes Medea from the city. Although a minor
character, Creon's suicidal embrace of his dying daughter provides one of the
play's most dramatic moments, and his sentence against Medea lends an
urgency to her plans for revenge.

Glauce
Daughter of Creon, Glauce is the young, beautiful princess for whom Jason
abandons Medea. Her acceptance of the poisoned coronet and dress as "gifts"
leads to the first murder of the play. Although she never utters a word,

Aegeus
The King of Athens, Aegeus passes through Corinth after having visited the
Oracle at Delphi, where he sought a cure for his sterility. Medea offers him some
fertility-inducing drugs in exchange for sanctuary in Athens.
Nurse
Caretaker of the house, the nurse of the children serves as Medea's confidant.
Her presence is mainly felt in the play's opening lament and in a few speeches
addressing diverse subjects not entirely related to the action of the play.

Themes –

"Medea" by Christopher Durang and Wendy Wasserstein is a modern

adaptation of the classic Greek tragedy by Euripides. While it retains elements
of the original story, Durang and Wasserstein infuse it with contemporary
themes and satire. Some of the prominent themes in their one-act play include:

Betrayal and Revenge: The theme of betrayal runs deep in "Medea," as the
protagonist, Medea, feels betrayed by her husband, Jason. Her subsequent
desire for revenge drives much of the action in the play.

Feminism and Gender Roles: The play explores issues of gender roles and
power dynamics, particularly in the context of marriage and motherhood.
Medea's struggle against patriarchal oppression and her desire for
independence reflect feminist themes.

Identity and Self-Discovery: Through the character of Medea, the play delves
into questions of identity and self-discovery. Medea grapples with her sense of
self-worth and identity in the face of rejection and betrayal.

The Nature of Love and Relationships: "Medea" examines the complexities

of love and relationships, highlighting the destructive power of jealousy and
betrayal within intimate partnerships.
Satire and Parody: Durang and Wasserstein infuse the play with elements of
satire and parody, poking fun at traditional theatrical conventions and societal
norms. The use of humor serves to both entertain and provoke thought about
the themes and characters presented.

The Human Condition and Morality: The play raises questions about the
human condition and morality, particularly in terms of how far one is willing to
go in seeking justice and revenge.

Society and Social Commentary: Through its exploration of themes such as

marriage, family, and societal expectations, "Medea" offers social commentary
on contemporary culture and values.

These themes collectively contribute to the richness and complexity of Durang

and Wasserstein's adaptation of the classic Medea story.

Questions

1. Why did Medea kill her children?

Medea kills her children to get revenge on Jason for abandoning her and her

children in order to marry another woman.

2. When was Medea written?

Medea was written in 431 BCE.

3. What genre is Medea?

Medea falls under the Greek Tragedy genre.

4. Where was Medea written?

Athens
5. Why does Jason abandon Medea and their children?

Jason abandons them in order to marry Glauce, the king's daughter. This will

raise his social standing.

6. Why does King Creon banish Medea and her children?

He is afraid that she will take revenge on Glauce and Jason.

7. What does King Aegeus want in exchange for providing Medea refuge?

Drugs that will cure his sterility.

8. What is the story of Medea?

Medea follows the story of Medea, a sorceress, whose husband, Jason, left her
and her children to remarry Glauce, the daughter of King Creon. Medea plots
her revenge full of passion and distress. Her revenge results in the murder of
Glauce, King Creon, and infamously her two children.