Action Potential

An action potential is a quick change in a neuron’s electrical

charge that moves along the axon.
When a neuron is stimulated, small channels in its cell
membrane open up to let the positively charged sodium ions
rush in. For a moment, the neuron’s charge is less negative or
even positive, creating an action potential.
After firing an action potential, the small channels in its cell
membrane close again.
A neuron needs a short break before it can open them again
because it cannot send signals right away.
This short break is called the absolute refractory period, which is
the minimum time the neuron must rest before it can fire again.
Synapse
The synapse has a very tiny gap called the synaptic cleft, which
separates the end of one neuron (the terminal buttons) from the
surface of the other neuron (its cell membrane)
The signals must cross this gap to permit the neurons to
communicate.
In this situation, the neuron that sends a signal across the gap is
referred to as the presynaptic neuron.
The neuron that receives a signal across the gap is referred to as
the postsynaptic neuron.
Cont.…
When an action potential arrives at the end of the axon (terminal
buttons), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which are
chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another.
Inside the terminal buttons, those chemicals are kept in tiny
sacks called synaptic vesicles.
Neurotransmitters are released when a vesicle fuses with the
membrane of the presynaptic cell, allowing its content to spill
into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters are spread across the synaptic cleft to the
membrane of the postsynaptic cell.
Then they bind with special molecules in the membrane of the
postsynaptic cell at various receptor sites. Those sites are tuned
to recognize and respond to specific neurotransmitters and not
others.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are very important for behavior as they play a
key role in everything from the movement of the muscles to
mood and mental health.
Specific neurotransmitters work in specific kinds of synapses.
As you know, neurotransmitters deliver their message by
binding to the receptor sites of the postsynaptic membrane.
However, neurotransmitters cannot just bind to any site. The
binding process operates much like a lock and a key.
Because of this, neurotransmitters can send signals to certain
locations on the cell membrane. This specialization reduces the
crosstalk between the densely packed neurons, making the
conversation of the nervous system more precise.
LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures
that help us regulate ur emotions and behavior. These structures
are the components of the limbic system that work together with
other brain regions by processing our memory, thoughts, and
emotions, and tell our body how to respond.
It creates an instinct that helped our ancestors survive by
triggering behaviors that were needed to eat and drink,
reproduce, care for young, and react to the environment, like the
fight or flight response.
THALAMUS (7)
 The thalamus is a pair of structures found in the center of the
limbic system.

 It connects many neural pathways to the cerebral cortex.

 It works as the brain’s main relay station, passing sensory and

motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex and other limbic system
parts.

 It organizes sensory information so that higher brain areas can

process it more easily.

 The thalamus helps maintain alertness and focus attention on

important sensory events.

 Damage to the thalamus can cause:

 Motor impairments
 Tremors
 Attention difficulties
 Insomnia
  Memory loss
 Vision loss or sensitivity to light
 Motor system disorders

 Severe damage can lead to a coma.

HYPOTHALAMUS (7)

 The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus.

 Its main role is to maintain homeostasis — keeping the body’s

internal state balanced and steady.

 It controls autonomic functions such as:

 Hunger and thirst

 Body temperature
 Blood pressure
 Heart rate

 It acts as a link between the nervous system and the endocrine

system.

 It helps regulate sexual activity.

 The hypothalamus also manages the body’s response to stress.

 Damage to the hypothalamus can cause:

 Aggression
 Strong stress reactions
 Too low (hypothermia) or too high (hyperthermia) body
temperature
 Fatigue
 Weight gain or loss
 Increased or decreased sex drive

BASAL GANGLIA (6)

 The basal ganglia are a group of structures located at the top of the
midbrain.

 They help control voluntary movements, such as running, walking,

and keeping balance and posture.

 The basal ganglia also play a role in thinking (cognitive functions)

and emotional behavior.

 They are linked to the formation of habits and addictions.

 Damage to the basal ganglia can cause:

 Tremors
 Involuntary muscle movements
 Abnormal posture

 Such damage is connected with movement disorders like

Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

CINGULATE GYRUS (4)

 The cingulate gyrus is part of the limbic cortex, which is the outer
region of the limbic lobe.

 It helps regulate emotions, behavior (especially aggression), and

pain.

 It also helps control autonomic motor functions (automatic body

movements).

 The front part of the cingulate gyrus connects sights and smells with
memories of past emotions.

HIPPOCAMPUS (7)
  The hippocampus is the part of the brain linked with memory.
 It is a paired structure, with two parts shaped like seahorses,
each curving backward in its lobe from the amygdala.
 The hippocampus mainly helps with storing long-term memories
and spatial processing (understanding space and direction).
 The exact way it stores memories is still debated by scientists.
 It is also a place for neurogenesis, where new nerve cells are
formed from adult stem cells.
 Damage to the hippocampus can cause memory problems and
anterograde amnesia (trouble forming new memories).
 People with Alzheimer’s disease often show cell loss in the
hippocampus.

AMYGDALA (5)

 The amygdala is a small pair of structures small, each almond-

shaped located in front of the hippocampus in the temporal
lobe.
 It plays a major role in emotional learning and behavior.
 The amygdala helps evaluate the emotional valence of
situations, recognize danger, and prepare the body for fight-or-
flight by raising heart rate and breathing rate.
 Because of its proximity to the hippocampus, it also helps store
memories linked to strong emotions.
 Damage to the amygdala can cause:
o Increased aggression and irritability
 o Poor emotional control
o Trouble recognizing emotions in others
o Difficulty recognizing fear, which may lead to more risk-
taking behavior.

EMOTIONAL REGULATION AND MENTAL HEALTH

 The amygdala controls emotions such as fear, anxiety, and
aggression. When it becomes overactive, it may lead to disorders like
anxiety, depression, or PTSD.

 The hippocampus, which plays a crucial role in memory, is

significantly impacted by chronic stress. High levels of cortisol (stress
hormone) can shrink its size, leading to memory problems or depression.
 An imbalance in the limbic system can cause mood disorders,
emotional instability, and difficulty managing stress.

STRESS RESPONSE AND PHYSICAL HEALTH

 The hypothalamus, part of the limbic system, controls the HPA
axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis), which regulates
cortisol release.
 Chronic stress causes overactivation of the HPA axis, leading to
excess cortisol, which can weaken immunity, raise blood pressure,
cause weight gain, disturb sleep, and increase the risk of
cardiovascular disease.
 A healthy limbic system helps maintain stress responses in a
balanced way, preventing them from becoming harmful.

MOTIVATION, REWARD, AND ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS

 The limbic system connects with the dopaminergic reward

pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens.

 Proper activation of this pathway supports motivation, pleasure,

and goal-directed behavior.

 Dysregulation of this pathway can cause addictive behaviors such

as substance abuse, overeating, or compulsive actions, which negatively
affect well-being.

MEMORY AND LEARNING

 The hippocampus connects experiences with emotions, helping us

learn from them.

 Trauma or long-term stress can impair memory consolidation and

recall, leading to PTSD or cognitive decline.
SLEEP, APPETITE, AND HOMEOSTASIS

 The hypothalamus controls sleep-wake cycles, hunger, thirst,

and body temperature.

 Limbic system dysfunction can cause insomnia, eating

disorders, or metabolic problems, which negatively impact
overall health.

Amygdala: The amygdala helps process what we feel from our senses.
It works with the hippocampus to create emotional memories. It also has
many receptor sites that respond to natural chemicals in the brain, which
are linked to feelings like anger, fear, and sexual desire.

Hippocampus: The hippocampus helps make, organize, and store

memories. It is especially important for creating new memories and
connecting emotions and senses to those memories.

Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland connects the brain’s nervous

system with the body’s hormone (endocrine) system. It releases
hormones that control growth, energy use, sexual development, and
reproduction. It is connected to the hypothalamus, about the size of a
pea, and is found in the middle of the head, just behind the nose.

CEREBRAL CORTEX
The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of grey matter that completely
covers the surface of the two sides (hemispheres) of the brain. It is
about 2 to 4 mm thick, and it contains many nerve cell bodies. The
surface of the cortex has many folds — the raised parts are called gyri,
and the shallow grooves are called sulci.

The cerebral cortex is different from the cerebrum, which is the entire
upper part of the brain made up of the right and left hemispheres. The
cerebrum includes:
The outer grey matter (the cerebral cortex)

The inner white matter (made of myelinated axons that connect

different brain areas)

Subcortical structures such as the diencephalon, pituitary gland,

limbic system, and basal ganglia

The cerebral cortex is divided into sensory areas (for processing

information from the senses), motor areas (for controlling movement),
and association areas (for linking and interpreting data). It is
responsible for many important functions such as feeling and
perceiving sensations, planning and starting movements, and thinking
processes like decision-making, motivation, attention, learning,
memory, and problem-solving.

STRUCTURE
The cerebral cortex is a thick layer of nerve cell bodies that covers the
outer surface of the brain’s two hemispheres, just under a thin
protective layer called the pia mater. It looks wrinkled because of
many ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci). These folds are important
because they increase the surface area of the brain, allowing it to have
more neurons and therefore greater thinking and processing abilities.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is divided into six lobes, based on the major sulci
(grooves). Each lobe has specific areas that control different brain
functions.

1. Frontal lobe – located at the front; important for thinking,

planning, and movement.
2. Parietal lobe – behind the frontal lobe; processes touch,
temperature, and body position.
3. Temporal lobe – on the sides; involved in hearing, memory, and
language.
4. Occipital lobe – at the back; responsible for vision.
5. Insular lobe – hidden deep inside the lateral sulcus; involved in
emotions, taste, and body awareness.
6. Limbic lobe – on the inner (medial) side of the brain; plays a role
in emotions and memory.

Main Sulci (Grooves)

 Lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure): separates the temporal lobe

from the frontal and parietal lobes.
 Central sulcus: divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
 Parieto-occipital sulcus: separates the parietal and occipital
lobes.
 Cingulate sulcus: separates the limbic lobe from the frontal and
parietal lobes.
 Collateral sulcus: separates the limbic lobe from the temporal
lobe.
 Circular sulcus of the insula: separates the insular lobe from the
frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.
HISTOLOGY
The histology of the cerebral cortex (its microscopic structure) shows
that it is made up of billions of neurons (nerve cells) and their parts —
cell bodies, dendrites, and axons (both myelinated and unmyelinated).
These are arranged in layers, forming a complex structure.

There are six main types of neurons in the cerebral cortex:

1. Pyramidal cells – the main output cells that send signals to other
parts of the brain and spinal cord.
2. Fusiform cells – spindle-shaped cells involved in sending signals
deeper into the brain.
3. Stellate (granular) cells – star-shaped cells that receive sensory
input.
4. Basket cells – inhibitory neurons that control the activity of
pyramidal cells.
5. Horizontal cells of Cajal-Retzius – help in early brain
development.
6. Cells of Martinotti – small cells that send axons toward the
surface of the cortex.

Besides neurons, the cortex also contains many supporting glial cells,
which help protect and nourish the neurons. The main glial cells include:

 Oligodendrocytes
 Astrocytes
 Microglia
 Ependymal

The cerebral cortex is organized into six layers (laminae) based on the
shape and size of the neurons.

FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex has three main functional areas based on what
they do: primary, secondary, and association areas.

1. Primary areas – These control the brain’s basic sensory and

motor functions.
o Sensory areas receive direct information from the senses
(like touch, vision, or hearing).
o Motor areas send commands to the muscles for movement.
2. Secondary areas – These are located next to the primary areas.
They receive information from both the primary areas and the
thalamus (a relay center in the brain). Their job is to refine and
interpret the raw signals received — for example, recognizing a
sound as a word instead of just a noise.
3. Association areas – These areas combine and analyze
information from different senses and brain regions. They are
involved in higher mental functions such as thinking, memory,
learning, language, and decision-making.

PRINCIPAL GYRI OF CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex is divided into several lobes, each responsible for
different functions. The main four are the frontal, parietal, temporal,
and occipital lobes, but some sources also include the limbic lobe and
the insula (insular lobe). These lobes work together to control both
body functions and mental activities.

1. Frontal Lobe

 Location: Front part of the brain (behind the forehead).

 Main Functions:
o Thinking and planning
o Decision-making and problem-solving
o Controlling voluntary movements
o Managing emotions and personality
2. Parietal Lobe

 Location: Behind the frontal lobe.

 Main Functions:
o Processing touch, pain, and temperature
o Understanding body position and spatial awareness
o Helping with coordination between sensory information and
movement

3. Temporal Lobe

 Location: On the sides of the brain (near the temples).

 Main Functions:
o Hearing and processing sounds
o Understanding language
o Storing and recalling memories
o Managing emotions

4. Occipital Lobe

 Location: At the back of the brain.

 Main Function:
o Processing and interpreting visual information from the eyes

5. Insula (Insular Lobe)

 Location: Hidden deep inside the lateral sulcus, beneath the

frontal and temporal lobes.
 Main Functions:
o Involved in awareness and consciousness
o Helps regulate emotions and body sensations
o Plays a role in self-awareness and empathy

6. Limbic Lobe (additional lobe)

 Location: On the inner (medial) side of the brain.

  Main Functions:
o Controlling emotions
o Involved in memory and motivation.

BLOOD SUPPLY
The cerebral cortex gets its blood supply from three main arteries —
the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries.

 The anterior and middle cerebral arteries come from the

internal carotid artery
 The posterior cerebral artery comes from the basilar artery.

Here’s how they supply different parts of the brain:

 The middle cerebral artery mainly supplies the outer surface of

the brain’s hemispheres.
 The posterior cerebral artery supplies the occipital lobe and the
lower part of the temporal lobe
 Branches from all three arteries also provide blood to the inner
and bottom surfaces of both hemispheres.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the

peripheral nervous system that controls the automatic
functions of the body — things we do without thinking, such
as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and gland activity.
It works mostly independently of our conscious control, but
emotions like stress, fear, or excitement can affect it. For
example, when you’re scared, your heart beats faster because of
changes in autonomic activity.
The ANS controls three main types of tissues:
 Cardiac muscle (heart)
 Smooth muscle (found in organs and blood vessels)
 Glands (like sweat, tear, and salivary glands)
It is sometimes called the vegetative nervous system, and it is
mainly controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain. It helps
with important reflexes such as vomiting, coughing, and
sneezing.

Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

The ANS has two main parts that usually work in opposite
ways:
1. Sympathetic Nervous System (Fight or Flight)

 Gets the body ready for action, stress, or danger.

 Causes effects like:
 o Faster heartbeat
o Wider airways (for more oxygen)

o More blood to muscles

 Uses the chemical adrenaline (epinephrine) to send

signals.
 Example: When you’re scared, your heart races and your
muscles tense — that’s the sympathetic system working.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System (Rest and
Digest)

 Works when the body is calm and relaxed.

 Slows the heart rate and helps with:
o Digestion

o Tear and saliva production

o Resting and energy saving

 Also involved in sexual arousal.

 Its nerves are mainly found in certain cranial nerves.
Together, these two systems balance each other — one speeds
up body functions, the other slows them down.

How It Works

Both systems have two sets of nerve cells:

1. Preganglionic neurons – start in the brainstem or spinal
cord.
2. Postganglionic neurons – found in autonomic ganglia
Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems send signals to
organs through these two neurons

 In the parasympathetic system, the Parasympathetic ganglion is

near or inside the organ.

 In the sympathetic system, the Sympathetic ganglion is far from

the organ (near the spine).

Both systems also send sensory feedback to the brain about how the
organs are working.

[Link] Nervous System (Third Division)

A third part of the autonomic system is the enteric nervous

system, found in the walls of the digestive tract.
It controls digestion, including muscle movement in the
intestines and enzyme secretion, and can work independently
of the brain and spinal cord.
SYMPATHETIC NEVOUS SYSTEM
The sympathetic nervous system is the part of the nervous system that
helps the body react quickly to stress or danger.

In normal situations, it makes small local adjustments—like causing

sweating when you feel hot or controlling blood flow.

But in stressful or emergency situations, it activates fully to create the

“fight-or-flight” response. During this response:

 The adrenal glands release epinephrine (adrenaline).

 The heart rate and blood flow increase.
  Blood is directed to the muscles (for strength and quick
movement).
 Blood vessels in the skin and stomach tighten (less blood goes
there).
 The pupils and airways widen to improve vision and breathing.
 Hairs stand up (piloerection).

SYMPATHETIC GANGLIA
The sympathetic ganglia are groups of nerve cell bodies found outside
the spinal cord. They can be divided into two main types based on
where they are located in the body:

1. Paravertebral Ganglia (Sympathetic Chain or Trunk)

 These ganglia are located on both sides of the spinal column.

 They are connected together to form a chain that runs from the
neck to the pelvis.
 There are usually 21 or 22 pairs of paravertebral ganglia:
o 3 in the neck (cervical region):
 Superior cervical ganglion
 Middle cervical ganglion
 Cervicothoracic ganglion
o 10 or 11 in the thoracic region
o 4 in the lumbar region
o 4 in the sacral region
 There is also one unpaired ganglion at the bottom, in front of the
coccyx (tailbone), called the ganglion impar.

These ganglia help control functions like heart rate, blood vessel
constriction, and sweat gland activity in different parts of the body.
2. Prevertebral (Preaortic) Ganglia

 These ganglia are located in front of the aorta (the main artery in
the abdomen).
 There are three main preaortic ganglia:
1. Celiac ganglion – sends nerves to the stomach, liver,
pancreas, and the beginning of the small intestine
(duodenum).
2. Superior mesenteric ganglion – controls the small
intestine.
3. Inferior mesenteric ganglion – controls the lower parts of
the large intestine (descending and sigmoid colon),
rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs.

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The parasympathetic nervous system is a part of the autonomic
nervous system that mainly controls the body’s involuntary functions
related to rest, relaxation, and digestion. It works opposite to the
sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for stress or
emergencies.

Main Function

The parasympathetic system helps the body calm down and conserve
energy after stress. It controls visceral organs (like glands, heart, lungs,
and intestines) to keep them working normally.

Structure

 It has two types of neurons:

1. Preganglionic neurons – start in the brainstem and the
sacral part of the spinal cord.
2. Postganglionic neurons – found inside or near the organs
they control (like the heart, lungs, stomach, or bladder).

Both neurons use the same neurotransmitter, called acetylcholine, to

send signals.

Location of Ganglia

 In the head: near organs like the eyes or salivary glands

 In the chest and abdomen: near or within organs such as the
heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, and bladder
Examples of Functions

 Lacrimal glands – produce tears

 Salivary glands – produce saliva
 Nasal glands – produce mucus
 Heart – slows the heartbeat
 Digestive organs – stimulate digestion and nutrient absorption

STRUCTURE OF SPINAL CORD

Ascending and descending spinal tracts are pathways in the spinal cord
that help the brain and body communicate.

 Ascending tracts carry sensory information (like touch, pain, and

temperature) from the body to the brain. Examples include the
dorsal column-medial lemniscus, spinothalamic, and
spinocerebellar tracts.
 Descending tracts carry motor commands (like signals to move
muscles) from the brain to the body. Examples include the
corticospinal, vestibulospinal, reticulospinal and rubrospinal tracts.

Upper Motor Neuron (UMN) Lesion

 Definition: It happens when there is damage to the motor neurons

that start in the brain (cerebral cortex or brainstem) and travel
down the spinal cord through the corticospinal tract.
 Site of Lesion: The damage occurs from the brain down to the
spinal cord, before the nerves connect to the anterior horn cells.
 Common Causes: Stroke, spinal cord injury (above the level of
the anterior horn), or multiple sclerosis.
Clinical Features of Upper Motor Neuron (UMN) Lesion:

MSHCPM

 Muscle weakness: Affects groups of muscles rather than single

ones.
 Spasticity: Muscles become stiff and tight
 Hyperreflexia: Reflexes are exaggerated or stronger than
normal.
 Clonus: Rapid, repeated jerking movements after a muscle is
stretched.
 Positive Babinski sign: When the sole of the foot is stroked, the
big toe moves upward instead of downward.
 Minimal muscle wasting: Muscles may shrink slightly later on
due to lack of use, not nerve damage.

Lower Motor Neuron (LMN) Lesion

 Definition: Occurs when there is damage to the motor neurons that

directly connect to muscles
 Site of Lesion: From the anterior horn cells → peripheral
nerves → neuromuscular junction → muscle.
 Common Causes: Poliomyelitis, peripheral nerve injury, spinal
muscular atrophy.

Clinical Features of Lower Motor Neuron (LMN) Lesion:

MFHFM

 Muscle weakness: Usually affects specific muscles rather than

large groups.
 Flaccidity: Muscles become soft, weak, and have low tone
(limp).
 Hyporeflexia or areflexia: Reflexes are reduced or completely
absent.
  Fasciculations: Small visible muscle twitches caused by random
firing of motor units.
 Muscle atrophy: Noticeable muscle wasting occurs because the
muscles lose their nerve supply.

Paralysis

 Definition: Loss of voluntary muscle movement caused by

damage to the nervous system or muscles.
 Causes: Stroke, spinal cord injury, peripheral nerve damage,
or neuromuscular diseases like myasthenia gravis and muscular
dystrophy.
 Types:
o Monoplegia: Paralysis of one limb
o Hemiplegia: Paralysis of one side of the body
o Paraplegia: Paralysis of both lower limbs
o Quadriplegia: Paralysis of all four limbs
 Types by Lesion:
o UMN lesion → Spastic paralysis: Stiff muscles, increased
reflexes, positive Babinski sign.
o LMN lesion → Flaccid paralysis: Soft, weak muscles,
muscle wasting, fasciculations.
 Management: Focus on treating the cause, physiotherapy,
rehabilitation, medications for spasticity, and surgery if
required.

Dermatomes

 Definition: A dermatome is an area of skin that receives sensory

input from one spinal nerve root.
 Arrangement: The skin of the body is divided into dermatomes
that are arranged in segments from the head down to the toes.
 Clinical Importance:
o Helps locate spinal cord or nerve root damage.
o Used in neurological exams
o Useful in regional anesthesia
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM

Ventricular Connections

 The interventricular foramina (of Monro) connect each lateral

ventricle to the third ventricle.
 The cerebral aqueduct (of Sylvius) connects the third ventricle
to the fourth ventricle.
 From the fourth ventricle, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows into
the central canal of the spinal cord and into the subarachnoid
space around the brain and spinal cord.

Ventricular Functions

 CSF Production and Circulation: The choroid plexus in each

ventricle produces CSF.
 Protection: The ventricles and CSF help cushion the brain against
sudden movements and shocks.
 Homeostasis: They maintain pressure and provide a stable
environment for the brain and neurons.

Clinical Importance

Blockage or imbalance in CSF flow within the ventricular system can

lead to hydrocephalus, a condition in which cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) builds up inside the brain’s ventricles, leading to increased
intracranial pressure

Meninges of brain and spinal cord

The meninges are three protective membranes that cover the brain and
spinal cord, providing support, nourishment, and protection.

They consist of three layers:

Dura mater – the tough, outermost layer that forms a strong protective
covering.

Arachnoid mater – the web-like, middle layer that cushions the brain
and contains the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the subarachnoid space.

Pia mater – the thin and delicate, inner layer that sticks closely to the
surface of the brain and spinal cord, supplying them with blood vessels.

Together, the meninges protect the central nervous system from injury
and help circulate cerebrospinal fluid.

Blood Supply of the Brain and Spinal Cord

 The brain gets its blood from two main pairs of arteries:
o Internal carotid arteries: Supply the front and middle
parts of the brain.
o Vertebral arteries: Join together to form the basilar artery,
which supplies the back part of the brain.
 These arteries form a circular network at the base of the brain
called the Circle of Willis, which helps ensure constant blood
flow, even if one vessel is blocked.
 The spinal cord is supplied by:
o One anterior spinal artery: Feeds the front two-thirds of
the spinal cord.
o Two posterior spinal arteries: Feed the back one-third of
the spinal cord.
o Segmental arteries: Strengthen and support blood flow
along the entire length of the spinal cord.