CGD223: Digital
Cartography
LECTURE 5
DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION
– RASTER MODEL
OUTLINE
❖ Definitions
❖ Characteristics
❖Raster Functions
❖Vector vs Raster
Raster Data - Definition
1. A raster is an array of cells, where each cell
has a value representing a specific portion of
an object or a feature. A point may be
represented by a single cell, a line by a
sequence of neighbouring cells and a polygon
by a collection of contiguous cells.
2. Raster data is any pixelated (or gridded) data
where each pixel is associated with a specific
geographical location. The value of a pixel can
be continuous (e.g. elevation) or categorical
(e.g. land use)
Raster Data - Definition
❖In its simplest form, a raster consists of a matrix of
cells (or pixels) organized into rows and columns (or a
grid) where each cell contains a value representing
information, such as temperature.
❖Rasters are digital aerial photographs, imagery from
satellites, digital pictures, or even scanned maps.
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: L. MAPHALE
General Characteristics of
Raster Data
❖In raster datasets, each cell (also known as a pixel) has a value.
❖The cell values represent the phenomenon portrayed by the
raster dataset such as a category, magnitude, height, or spectral
value.
❖The category could be a land-use class such as grassland, forest,
or road.
❖A magnitude might represent gravity, noise pollution, or percent
rainfall.
❖Height (distance) could represent surface elevation above mean
sea level, which can be used to derive slope, aspect, and watershed
properties. Spectral values are used in satellite imagery and aerial
photography to represent light reflectance and color.
General Characteristics of
Raster Data
❖The cell size determines how coarse or fine the patterns or
features in the raster will appear.
❖The smaller the cell size, the smoother or more detailed the
raster will be.
❖However, the greater the number of cells, the longer it will
take to process, and it will increase the demand for storage
space.
❖If a cell size is too large, information may be lost or subtle
patterns may be obscured. For example, if the cell size is larger
than the width of a road, the road may not exist within the
raster dataset.
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: L. MAPHALE
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: L. MAPHALE
Raster Data Model
Real world entities Important defining characteristics of raster
represented by a set of data model
cells in a grid pattern with
associated attributes
◦ Typically, square & evenly
spaced in X & Y direction
Bolstad, 2005
PIXEL
❖Pixel is an abbreviation for PICTURE ELEMENT,
which is the smallest unit in an image. In raster-based
GIS systems, attribute information can be assigned to
each pixel.
❖Pixel can also be called a Cell. All cells in a raster must
be the same size, determining the resolution.
▪ The cells can be any size, but they should be small enough
to accomplish the most detailed analysis.
▪ A cell can represent a square kilometer, a square meter, or
even a square centimeter.
Rasters as basemaps
A common use of raster data in a GIS is as a background
display for other feature layers. For example,
orthophotographs displayed underneath other layers
provide the map user with confidence that map layers
are spatially aligned and represent real objects, as well
as additional information.
Three main sources of raster basemaps are orthophotos
from aerial photography, satellite imagery, and scanned
maps. Below is a raster used as a basemap for road data.
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: L. MAPHALE
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: L. MAPHALE
Raster Functions
➢Local Operations
➢Neighborhood Operations
➢Zonal Operations
➢Global operations
Local operations
➢A local operation can be performed on single or multiple
rasters.
➢When used on a single raster, a local operation usually
takes the form of applying some mathematical
transformation to each cell in the grid.
➢For example, a researcher may obtain a digital elevation
model (DEM) with each cell value representing elevation in
feet.
➢If it is preferred to represent those elevations in meters, a
simple, arithmetic transformation (original elevation in feet
* 0.3048 = new elevation in meters) of each cell value can be
performed locally to accomplish this task.
Focal/Neighborhood Operations
➢Tobler’s first law of geography states that “everything is related to
everything else, but near things are more related than distant
things.” Neighborhood operations represent a group of frequently
used spatial analysis techniques that rely heavily on this concept.
➢Neighborhood functions examine the relationship of an object with
similar surrounding objects.
➢They can be performed on point, line, or polygon vector datasets as
well as on raster datasets.
➢In the case of vector datasets, neighborhood analysis is most
frequently used to perform basic searches. For example, given a point
dataset containing the location of convenience stores, a GIS could be
employed to determine the number of stores within 5 KM of a linear
feature.
Zonal operations
➢Zonal operations compute an output raster dataset where the
output value for each location depends on the value of the cell
at the location and the association that location has within a
cartographic zone.
➢Zonal operations are like focal operations except that the
definition of the neighborhood in a zonal operation is the
configuration of the zones themselves, not a specified
neighborhood shape.
➢Individual zones can be of any shape or size and can be
disconnected from each other.
Zonal Operations
Global operations
➢These are like zonal operations whereby the entire
raster dataset’s extent represents a single zone.
➢Typical global operations include determining basic
statistical values for the raster.
➢For example, the minimum, maximum, average,
range, and so forth can be quickly calculated over the
entire extent of the input raster and subsequently be
output to a raster in which every cell contains that
calculated value.
Raster Functions
Raster Data Sources
Satellite
Imagery Air Photos
Scanned Maps
UAV Imagery
Digital Orthophotograph
A scanned photograph that has
been mathematically rectified to
eliminate the effects of
displacement so that its view
always appears as though it is
perpendicular to the ground.
Copyright 1993 Nassau County, NY
SPATIAL DATA
• RASTER
• VECTOR
• Real World
Source: Defense Mapping School
National Imagery and Mapping Agency
Raster Vs. Vector
Data structure –
◦ Raster- usually simple
◦ Vector- usually complex
Storage requirements
◦ Raster- large for most data sets
◦ Vector- small for most data sets
Coordinates conversion
◦ Raster- may be slow depending on size of data sets
◦ Vector- simple
Raster Vs. Vector
Analysis
◦ Raster- easy for continuous data, simple for
many layer combinations.
◦ Vector- preferred for network analyses,
complex for other spatial operations.
Raster Vs. Vector
Positional precision
◦ Raster- floor set by pixel size
◦ Vector- limited only by quality of positional
measurements
Accessibility
◦ Raster- easy to modify or program due to simple data
structure
◦ Vector- often complex
Display and output
◦ Raster- good for images not for discrete features
◦ Vector- map like, poor for images
Raster Vs. Vector
Bolstad, 2005
Vector – Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages
◦ Good representation of reality
◦ Compact data structure
◦ Topology can be described in a network
◦ Accurate graphics
Disadvantages
◦ Complex data structures
◦ Simulation may be difficult
◦ Some spatial analyses are difficult or impossible to perform
Raster – Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages
◦ Simple data structure
◦ Easy overlay
◦ Various kinds of spatial analysis
◦ Uniform size and shape
◦ Cheaper technology
Disadvantages
◦ Large amount of data
◦ Projection transformation is difficult
◦ Different scales between layers can be difficult
◦ May lose information due to generalization
Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
Components of TIN data model
A data model typically
used to represent terrain
heights
◦ Typically X, Y and Z
locations for measured
points are entered into the
model
Bolstad, 2005
TIN Data Structures
The tin data structure is
based on two basic Bolstad (2005)
elements:
◦ points with x,y,z values, and a
series of edges joining these
points to form triangles.
◦ This triangular mosaic forms a
continuous faceted surface,
much like a jewel.
◦ TIN’s triangulation method
satisfies the Delaunay criterion
Triangulated Irregular Network
The illustration shows how we can create a TIN of the terrain.
The pictures are for a place around Ithaca, New York, USA.
Picture 1 shows acquired image, picture 2 shows survey points overlaid on the
image, picture 3 shows triangulation and picture 4 is the result.