RANDOM AND SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Errors in measurement fundamentally determine the accuracy and precision of a result.
Random Error: Introduces unpredictable variation in measurements, causing
them to spread out around the true value.
o Effect: The measurement is accurate, but not precise.
Systematic Error: Consistently shifts all measurements in a specific direction
(always higher or always lower) away from the true value.
o Effect: The measurement is precise, but not accurate.
No Error (Ideal): The measurement is accurate and precise.
I. PERCENTAGE ERROR
When a known or accepted value exists, the Percentage Error quantifies the degree of
accuracy.
|V −V T|
Formula: Percent Error= ×100 %
VT
Where,
o V : The Measured Value (Experimental Result).
o V T : The True or Accepted Value.
Example: In a laboratory, you are given a block of wood. You measure the
dimensions of the block and its displacement in a container of a known volume of
water. You calculate the density of the block of wood to be 0.8 g/cm 3. You look up
for density of a block of aluminum at room temperature and find it to be 0.9 g/cm 3.
Calculate the percent error of you measurement.
Given: V = 0.8 g/cm3
VT = 0.9 g/cm3
Solution: Percent Error=
| g
|
0.8 3 −0. 9 3
cm
g
cm
×100 %=11.11 %
g
0. 9 3
cm
Interpretation: This means the measurement is 11% off from the true value, or
89 % accurate.
II. UNCERTAINTY OF MEASUREMENTS
The uncertainty analysis is the process of evaluating the unavoidable errors associated
with a measurement.
Error is the difference between a measured value and the true value.
Uncertainty is the term used to describe the estimated magnitude of this error.
Relationship: Measured Value=( True Value± Uncertainty ) units
o Interpreting Uncertainty: If a measurement is 8.50 ± 0.03 inches ,the
experimenter is confident that the true width lies between
8.47 inches ( 8.50−0.03 ) and 8. 53 inches ( 8.50−0.03 )
III. ESTIMATING UNCERTAINTY IN REPEATED MEASUREMENTS
For repeated trials, Variance and Standard Deviation are used to quantify the spread
of the data, which is an estimate of random error (precision).
1. Variance ( σ 2 )
Variance measures how far each number in the set is from the mean x . A low variance
indicates high precision.
Formula (Population Variance):
2
Σ ( x−x )
σ 2=
N
Where, x : Individual measurement
x : Mean of measurements
N : Number of measurements
2. Standard Deviation (σ )
Standard Deviation is the square root of the variance. It gives a direct measure of the
average spread or variability in the data set. A low standard deviation means high
precision.
Formula:
√
2
Σ ( x−x )
σ =√ σ =
2
N
Example:
The width of the cardboard was measured using a meter stick. The values
obtained are entered in a data table. Note that the last digit is only a rough
estimate, since it is difficult to read a meter stick to the nearest tenth of a
millimeter (0.01 cm).
o Mean ( x ):
31.33+31.15+31.26+ 31.02+ 31.20
x= =31.19 cm
5
o Variance σ 2:
2 0.0551
σ = =0.01102
5
o Standard Deviation (σ ¿ :
σ =√ 0.01102=0.10 cm