CMET CASA

PART 61 MANUAL OF
STANDARDS
 Contents
Page 3

 Composition of the atmosphere

 Heat temperature pressure and humidity

Page 5

 Atmospheric stability

Page 8

 Clouds and precipitation

Page 11

 Visibility

Page 12

 Winds

Page 13

 Air masses and fronts

Page 17

 Flight considerations

Page 24

 Synoptic meteorology

Page 27

 Weather services

Page 28

 Climatology

Page 31

 Notes

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 Unit 1.8.3 CMTC: CPL meteorology – all aircraft categories

1. Reserved

2. Meteorology
2.1 Composition of the atmosphere
2.1.1 Describe the process of incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation and the factors that
affect them.
Solar radiation: is sun emitted energy that heats the earth through various wavelengths; ultraviolet (9%), visible
(45%) and near infrared (46%). Of this radiation, 205 is absorbed in clouds and gases, 31% is reflected into
space, with 49% of the radiation being absorbed by earth. This absorption is dependant also on weather (75%
on sunny days, 15% on cloudy). Most of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere.
Water vapour in the lower atmosphere absorbs much of the infrared radiation. And only a small amount of
visible radiation is absorbed, as clouds and dust can absorb varying amounts, or the radiation can be reflected
on the earths surface.
Terrestrial radiation: is radiation emitted from the earth. However, because the earth is much cooler, this
radiation is only emitted in long waves on the electromagnetic spectrum. The atmosphere is less transparent to
long wave radiation than other higher frequency radiation, with 90% of it being absorbed. Substances such as
carbon dioxide, water vapour and clouds are much more significant absorbers of terrestrial radiation than solar
radiation. These absorbers are also good emitters of radiation, with clouds both absorbing and reflecting
terrestrial radiation beck towards earth and some to space.
2.1.2 Explain the processes by which the sun’s energy is redistributed within the atmosphere and explain:
(a) conduction;
Conduction is a heat transfer process that transfers energy by contact, through molecular motion. This
energy transfer is most efficient through solid materials, not gas. It is important in the atmosphere in
transferring heat to air in direct contact with earth.
(b) advection;
Advection of heat energy occurs most notably with the horizontal movement of large air masses.
(c) convection;
Convection is a heat energy transfer by vertical movement of air. Thermal convection lifts heat away from
the surface of the earth (being heated by conduction) and this rising air forms currents called thermals.
Thermals both transport sensible heat aloft and also transfer upwards latent heat stored in water vapour.
Convection is responsible for the formation of cumulus clouds.
(d) latent heat;
This process involves the absorption and release of heat energy through evaporation, freezing, and
condensation of water. Water molecules in solid/liquid state are strongly bonded, whereas gas water
molecules have weak bonds. The energy required to break these strong bonds are massive, to the point that
it takes 600 times more energy to break bonds from liquid to gas, than to raise the temperature in water by
1o. When water vapour condenses, latent heat is released into the surrounding air warming it. And this
warming power of latent heat is responsible for precipitating systems.
(e) radiation. is heat energy transferred by electromagnetic waves (both short and long)

2.2 Heat, temperature, pressure and humidity

2.2.1 A student should:
(a) describe the method of measuring surface air temperature and know that actual temperatures may be
much higher, for example, above a runway; and
Temperature is found based on the difference between two internationally recognised standards, the
freezing and boiling point of water. In aviation, Celsius is used, with the freezing temperature being 0 oC and
the boiling temperature 100 oC. Surface temperature is measured 1.25 m above ground under a shelter (so
won’t be affect by the suns radiation) and promotes ventilation with the outside air.
Because of geography and atmospheric contaminants, the surface temperature will always depend on
location.
(b) know the meaning of the following terms:
(i) isotherm;
A layer of air in which the temperature doesn’t change with height (a layer of constant temperature).

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 (ii) radiation, advection, convection, conduction;
Radiation: is heat energy transferred by electromagnetic waves (both short and long).
Advection: is a heat energy transfer by horizontal movement of air.
Convection: is a heat energy transfer by vertical movement of air.
Conduction: is a heat transfer process that transfers energy by contact, through molecular motion
(iii) isobar, horizontal pressure gradient;
Isobar: is a smooth, non-intersecting line on a map that represents the same air pressure over a
region.
Horizontal pressure gradient: a pressure gradient is the amount of pressure change occurring over a
given distance. Its strength is dependant on the proximity of the isobars (closer together = stronger,
further apart = weaker).
(iv) saturated air, relative humidity, dew point;
Saturated air: when any given volume of air holds the maximum amount of water vapour, the air is
said to be saturated.
Relative humidity: is a moisture measure given by the ratio between the mass of the water vapour
actually present in a unit volume of the air to the amount of water vapour required to saturate it,
without changing the temperature.
Dew point: the temperature a sample of moist air has to be cooled to become saturated. If the
temperature is cooled below the dew point of the air, condensation will occur (drops of moisture
formed on a chilled bottle of water, where the temperature of the bottle is below the dew point of the
air in contact with it). Knowing surface temperature and dew point can determine the cloud base.
Knowing the DALR is 3oC per 1000’ and the dew point lapse rate is 0.6 oC per 1000’, the difference
between these lapse rates are 2.4oC per 1000’ (or 1 oC per 400’) it can roughly be determined at what
height air would saturate. E.g. for a dew point temperature of 10 oC and a surface temperature of 19
o
C, the cloud base would be near 3600’ (9 x 400). For a dew point temperature of 15 oC and a surface
temperature of 30oC, cloud should be about 6000’ (15 x 400)
The dew point temperature will never be lower than the dry bulb temperature
(v) evaporation, condensation, freezing.
Evaporation: is the process of liquid being turned into gas through latent heat. When water is heated,
the water evaporates because the molecules move and vibrate so quickly, that they escape into the
atmosphere as molecules of water vapour.
Condensation: less water vapour is need for an air mass to become saturated as it cools. Any parcel
of air containing water can be cooled to the point at which it becomes saturated. Further cooling
results in condensation, using latent heat.
Freezing: supercooled droplets, if undisturbed, can be frozen below the freezing temperature whilst
still being a liquid. However, if these droplets are disturbed (aircraft flying through them), freezing will
occur. There are less condensation nuclei available at higher altitudes than near the earth’s surface.
The fact that water can remain in the liquid state at temperatures below freezing has important
ramifications for aircraft flying in cloud.
2.2.2 List the effect of changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity on air density.
Temperature: is indirectly proportional with air density, so an increase in temperature with constant pressure will
result in a decrease in density.
Pressure: is directly proportional with air density, meaning an increase in pressure with constant temperature
will result in an increase in density.
Humidity: water vapour is a less dense gas than dry air, so the combination of water vapour and dry ait (moist
air) is slightly less dense than dry air at the same temperature/pressure. As a given parcel of air cools, its
relative humidity will always increase because its getting closer and closer to the point where it cannot hold any
more water (100% humidity)
2.2.3 List factors that influence the diurnal variation of surface air temperature and explain the temperature
gradient between land and sea surfaces.
The change in surface temperature from day to night is referred to as diurnal variation. Over water, the surface
temperature usually has a diurnal variation of less than 1 oC, and the air temperature near the water is usually
similar. However, land temperatures have a much larger diurnal variation. Arid climates such as deserts could
have a variation as large as 26 oC. However, land near the coast is largely dependent on the direction of the
wind, being largest if the wind is off the land and small if the direction is from the sea.
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 One factor that has a large effect on the size of the variation is wind. Wind can mix the air through a deeper
layer, with the atmosphere having a gain and loss of heat being shared by more molecules. As a result, the
variation is much less in windy conditions and conversely, the variation is much larger in calm conditions.
Another factor is the cloudiness, because on characteristic of clouds is daytime clouds work to reflect sunlight
back into space, and nigh time clouds act as a blanket keeping the air near the surface warmer.
The type of surface and its ability to heat to or from the atmosphere is another factor that can either increase of
decrease the surface temperatures variation. However, this can be largely impacted by the flow of air from
neighbouring areas.

2.3 Atmospheric stability

2.3.1 Differentiate between stable, unstable, and conditionally atmospheric conditions.
Determining atmospheric stability:
 Stability depends upon how the temperature of a displaced parcel of air compares with the
environment, level for level.
 Outcome often depends of the moisture content of the air (determines whether the rising parcel of air
changes temperature according to DALR or SALR, and upon the ELR)
 Parcels of air will initially rise and cool at the DALR but once condensation has occurred, parcels of air
cool at the SALR (a parcel of air will cool at the DALR or SALR regardless of ELR)
 If a rising parcel of air is warmer than the surrounding air, then the parcel of air
is unstable;
 If colder than the surrounding air, the parcel is stable,
 If the temperature in the rising air is the same as the surrounding air, the parcel
is said to have neutral stability.

Stable: if the lapse rate of a lifted parcel is cooler and therefore denser than the surrounding air, the parcel
tends to sink, meaning the air is stable (environmental lapse rate is less than the SALR). (DALR > SALR > ELR)
Unstable: if a parcel of air remains warmer than the surrounding air while being lifted, we say the air is
unstable. In other words, when the 'environmental lapse rate' is greater than the DALR (3°C/1000') or SALR
(3°C/1000'’) the atmosphere is absolutely unstable. (ELR > DALR > SALR)
Conditionally unstable: If in some situations the atmosphere is stable of unsaturated parcels of air, but
unstable is saturated (environmental lapse rate is between the DALR and SALR). When the trigger is removed
the parcel of unsaturated air will always be colder than the surroundings and subside, whilst the parcel of
unsaturated air will always be warmer than the surroundings and continue to rise. (DALR > ELR > SALR)
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The term “Conditional Stability” is not used and should be treated as incorrect when answering exam
questions!

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 Neutral atmosphere: if the lapse rate is such that a lifted parcel is the temperature as the surrounding air
(environmental lapse rate is the same as the DALR). Meaning that the lifted air is cooling at the same rate as
the surrounding atmosphere and once the lifting force is removed, the parcel of air will remain at that lifted
position. (When in dry air the ELR = DALR, when in saturated air the ELR = SALR)
Conditions which indicate a stable atmosphere:
 Smooth flying (generally calm conditions)
 Stratiform clouds
 Inversions
 Poor visibility
 Mist
 Fog
 Smog
 Dew
 Frost
 Low cloud and drizzle

Conditions which indicate an unstable atmosphere:

 Cumulus clouds
 Precipitation (showers, hail)
 Turbulence


Absolute Stability Absolute Instability Conditional Instability

Thunderstorms
 Tropical rainfall
 Dust storms
 Good visibility when near clouds, showers, and
dust storms

2.3.2 Understanding of adiabatic process and

the parcel method of assessing
stability.
A lapse rate is the rate in which the air
temperature decreases with height.
Adiabatic Process:
 When a parcel of air rises through the atmosphere and encounters a lower pressure it expands and cools
 When passing through the condensation level, the air goes from cooling at the DALR to the SALR
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  The adiabatic process is the process in which the temperature of a parcel of air decreases or increases
because of change in the volume or pressure, without adding or subtracting heat to or from that parcel:

Expansion  Cooling
Compression  Heating

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR):

 If a parcel of is unsaturated (relative humidity < 100%), it will rise and cool adiabatically (condensation has not
occurred)
 The adiabatic lapse rate for unsaturated air is 3°C/1000’.
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR):
 Once condensation has occurred, latent heat is released, and this has a warming effect and therefore the
SALR is less than the DALR
 At the base of a cloud the air is warm, holds a lot of water and therefore releases great amounts of latent heat.
 At the top of a cloud the air is cold, holding a small amount of water and only a small amount of latent heat is
released.
 At temperature of +15oC, an SALR of 1.5°C/1000' would apply. The SALR can be near 3°C/1000', but even
the smallest amount of latent heat released reduces the SALR to less than the DALR.
Dew Point Lapse Rate (DPLR):
 Dew point is defined as the temperature to which moist air must be cooled to produce saturation.
 Any further cooling below the dew point will produce condensation.
 As a parcel of air rises, the dew point reduces due to a reduction in pressure.
 The dew point lapse rate is 0.5°C/1000'.

In the diagram above, a parcel of air from the surface with a temperature of 12 oC has been forced to rise. As it rises,
the parcel cools at the DALR. This continues until the air becomes saturated. This occurs when the temperature within
the parcel has cooled to the dew point. As the air rises further, condensation occurs resulting in cloud. The air is
saturated and so now cools at the SALR. The air continues to rise until the temperature within the parcel becomes
equal to the environmental temperature, at which point the atmosphere becomes stable.

2.4 Clouds and precipitation

2.4.1 Identify and classify cloud ‘types’:
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 (a) classifications required are:
(i) high, medium, low; and
(ii) cumuliform, stratiform:
(A) examples of ‘type’ are Cu, Ci etc.

High Cirrus Ci
Cirrostratus Cs 20 000 to 40 000 ft
Cirrocumulus Cc
Middle Altostratus As 8 500 to 20 000 ft
Altocumulus Ac
Nimbostratus Ns From 500 to 8 500 ft, sometimes up to 20 000 ft
Low Cumulonimbus Cb From 2 000 to 5 000 ft, sometimes down to 1 000 ft
Cumulus Cu or up to 10 000 ft

Stratocumulus Sc 2 000 ft, sometimes down to 500 ft or up to 8 000 ft

Stratus St 500 to 2 000 ft, sometimes just above the surface
and up to 4 000 ft

2.4.2 State the standard abbreviation for each cloud type, and the method used to report cloud amount.
2.4.3 Describe the weather associated with each cloud type.

Cloud type Physical features Icing risk Amount of

turbulence
Cirrus Ci  white tuffs or  nil  little
filaments,
made up of ice
crystals
 no precipitation

Cirrostratus Cs  transparent  usually too  may be

sheet or veil, high for felt on
halo significant entering
phenomena, icing  usually
ice crystals only light
 no precipitation

Cirrocumulus Cc  small, rippled  usually too  indicates

elements, ice high for presence
crystals significant of
 no precipitation icing turbulence

Altostratus As  grey sheet  Some risk  Light in

 allows sun to in thin As, cloud,
appear as light rime may be
through ground  Definite moderate
glass risk in thick to severe
 Precipitation: As, at fronts
rain or snow moderate
rime, clear
possible in
lower
levels

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Altocumulus Ac  Rippled  May be  Usually
elements, light rime light
generally white icing  Usually
with some not severe
shading but
 Precipitation: constant
may produce turbulence
light showers in
lenticular
Nimbostratus Ns  Thicker,  Definite  Generally
darker, and rick of light in
lower based icing, cloud
sheet moderate  May be
 Precipitation: rime moderate
heavier  Clear ice to severe
intensity rain or probably in at fronts
snow lower
levels
Cumulonimbu Cb  Very large  Definite  Severe
s cauliflower- risk, both in
shaped towers dangerous and below
to 16 km high clear ice cloud
 Often ‘anvil likely  Very
tops’ violent on
 Phenomena: entering
thunderstorms, and
lightning, leaving
squalls
 Precipitation:
showers or
snow
Cumulus Cu  Individual cells,  Little risk in  Light to
vertical rolls, or fine moderate
towers weather, (fine
 Flat base FZL weather)
 Precipitation: usually  Moderate
showers or above to severe
snow cloud in and
 Definite below
icing in cloud
large Cu, (large Cu)
clear ice
just above
FZL
Stratocumulus Sc  Low level  Occasional  Light to
layered cloud rime if FZL moderate
 Series of low enough beneath
rounded rolls, and in
generally white cloud
 Precipitation:
drizzle
Stratus St  Low level layer  Usually nil  Light
or mass, grey,
uniform base
 Precipitation:
drizzle

2.4.4 Differentiate between drizzle, rain, showers and virga.

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Drizzle:
 Consists of uniform precipitation, composed exclusively of fine drops of water very close to one another
 Is often observed to drift with the air
Rain:
 Composed of larger water droplets than drizzle
 Drops observed to fall through the air straight to the ground
 Is a product of clouds formed through widespread vertical motion, rather than convective motion
 Because of the widespread nature of rain clouds, the precipitation tends to be continuous
 Falls from more or less continuous clouds such as As, Ns and heavy rain comes from Ns
Showers:
 Characterised by their abrupt start and finish
 Has a large variation in intensity
 Is a product of convective clouds
 May consist of water drops, hail, or snow
 Falls from isolated cloud, i.e. Cu/Cb
Virga:
 Is called a dry storm
 Evaporates or sublimes before it reaches earth’s surface
 Occurs as rain or ice passes through an area of dry or warm air
2.4.5 Select statements that describe the conditions necessary for the formation/dispersal of various types
of cloud.
Convective ascent:
 Air on the surface will rise when heated through conduction
 Suitable conditions: strong surface heating occurring during the day, relatively cold air stream moves
over warmer surface
 Cumuliform clouds may form if the surface air is moist enough, and by rising, the air is cooled to
saturation
Orographic ascent:
 Is the forced vertical motion of air by mountains or raised terrain
 The type of cloud formed is dependent on the stability of the atmosphere and moisture content of the
surface layer
 Orographic cloud forms on higher ground when moist air condenses below the ridge-top in stable
conditions
 Cumulus clouds form when air flowing over high terrain condenses above the hilltops when the
atmosphere is unstable
 Lenticular clouds form above hilltops when wave motion in the atmosphere lifts moist air to saturation
in a generally stable atmosphere. These clouds form in the up-motion section of the wave and
dissipates in the downward flow past the wave
Widespread ascent:
 Frequently occurs when one air mass slides up and over another. This may occur with the slow
convergence of air from a high-pressure system to a region of low pressure
 Also occurs within the frontal zones and within troughs of low pressure
 Clouds that may form if the lifted air is moist enough are St, Cu, Cb, Ac, when a mass of cold air forces
warm moist air to be lifted
Turbulent mixing:
 Light winds promote mixing of cool air to higher levels, bringing a layer of air to saturation, thus fog
forms
 Air flowing over terrain is generally formed by frictional forces into a series of eddies similar to water in
a fast-flowing stream
Conductive cooling:
 Is responsible for the formation of dew, fog and frost
 Dew will form when the temperature falls to the dew point and winds are so light that the turbulent
mixing does not occur

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  Fog is more likely to occur when winds are light but sufficiently strong to promote turbulent mixing of
shallow saturated air
2.5 Visibility
2.5.1 Know the method used in meteorological forecasts and reports to determine visibility.
 Visibility reported in aerodrome weather reports and specified in forecasts refers to ground-level
observations and forecasts of the greatest horizontal distance at which a dark object can be seen
 In a METAR, the minimum visibility observed or forecast is always given (ground level, not flight
visibility is given)
 In a METAR, if the minimum visibility covers more than half the aerodrome, or when visibility is
fluctuating rapidly and directional variation cannot be given, this is the only visibility given
 A METAR will has directional variation indicated when the minimum visibility is less than 5,000 meters
and the visibility in another direction covering more than half the aerodrome is at least 50% greater. If
this occurs, the minimum visibility will be given first with the direction indicated by one of the 8 points of
the compass, followed by the higher visibility without a compass point

 The actual weather at Parafield is, Wind is 300/15 knots, visibility is 1,000 meters to the south east with
the greatest visibility being 8,000 meters elsewhere
2.5.2 Describe the term ‘runway visual range’.
 RVR is maximum distance the runway can be seen from a position corresponding to the average eye-
level of pilots at touchdown, in the direction of the runway take-off or landing.
 It is measured instrumentally, so therefore only used at airports with suitable equipment
 These instruments are called transmissometers and contain photo-electric cells to measure the opacity
of the air and convert the reading into a RVR in meters
 Three transmissometers are used to measure values at the touchdown point, midpoint and stop-end of
the runway
2.5.3 Give reasons for differences between ‘inflight’ and
‘reported’ visibility.
 Inflight visibility changes as the angle of view varies,
whereas reported visibility will be reported as a constant
value
 When flying directly over a landmark, it may be perfectly
visible through fog or mist, however, as the slant angle
decreases, the landmark may become obscured
 However, on other occasions, cloud may reduce air-to-
ground visibility while the horizontal visibility on the airfield
is good
2.5.4 List meteorological factors that will reduce inflight visibility.
 Pollutants in the air, trapped below an inversion layer will
reduce visibility inflight, both at the inversion level and above (level: reduced forward visibility, above:
good forward visibility, reduced visibility of the ground)
 Clouds will essentially always reduce visibility, with some more than others (in high cirrus there is the
most visibility, but in the dense nimbostratus and cumulonimbus, the visibility could be less than 10m)
 Precipitation can have large effects on visibility, with the inhibition depending on the type of
precipitation;
- Drizzle - 400 – 3000 m
- Light rain - Greater than 10 km
- Moderate rain - 5 – 10 km
- Heavy rain - Greater than 1000 m
- Heavy rain in tropical regions - 50 – 500 m
- Moderate snow - 400 – 1000 m
- Heavy snow - Less than 400 m

2.6 Winds – general

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 2.6.1 Describe the relationship between pressure and wind and apply Buys Ballot’s law to assess the
approximate location of high- and low-pressure systems.
 For large-scale flow, if an observer stands with his back to the wind, the lower pressure is on his right in
the southern hemisphere and the higher-pressure system will be to the left.
 The greater the pressure gradient force, the higher the air tends to flow.
2.6.2 Differentiate between:
(a) squalls and gusts; and
Squalls:
 Are strong enough winds that rise suddenly, last for a few minutes, then rapidly die away again
 They rise in speed by at least 16 knots to a speed of greater than 22 knots
Gusts:
 Are increases in wind speed lasting for just a few seconds
 Are indicative of instability and turbulence in the boundary layer
 Can be much higher in the vicinity of showers, thunderstorms, and frontal systems
(b) backing and veering.
Backing:
 if the wind changes in an anticlockwise direction, it is said to back
Veering:
 if the wind changes in a clockwise direction, it is said to veer
2.6.3 Compare surface and gradient winds in terms of direction and strength.
Surface winds: because of frictional forces, surfaces winds flow across isobars towards low pressure.
Gradient winds: being at a higher altitude, gradient winds flow parallel to isobars.
2.6.4 List the ‘factors’ that effect the diurnal variation of wind and describe typical ‘variations’ in surface wind
strength during a 24-hour period.

2.7 Air masses and fronts

2.7.1 Describe typical ‘flying weather’ associated with the following:
(b) warm fronts;
Ahead of the warm front and at the passage of a warm front:
 The first indication of an approaching warm front is the thickening and increase of the cirri form cloud
cover
 Ahead of the warm front, altostratus thickens and lowers and the base of the altostratus becomes
low
 At the same time, the rain falling from the cloud has increased from more than slightly intermittent
and the altostratus becomes nimbostratus (the change from As to Ns is a natural progression, with
no obvious interruption or gap between two different cloud types)
 There is often a jet stream associated with the temperature contrast existing across the warm front
and is located in the warm air behind the front. The jet core lies above the polar tropopause, but
below the higher and colder tropopause in the tropical air. Clear air turbulence (CAT) associated
with fronts will be found most commonly below the jet core towards the cold air

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 Warm Front

In the warm sector:

 The warm sector cloud is commonly OVC St/Sc and poor visibility in light intermittent rain and/or
drizzle is normal, especially in winter
 Summer usually sees clear skies with scattered cumulus
 Warm sector isobars are usually straight and parallel
 The depression centre moves with the speed and direction of the warm sector isobars, but slows
down as the depression occludes

(a) cold fronts;

 Characterised by cumulonimbus clouds, gusty turbulent winds, heavy rain and sometimes
thunderstorms
 Has a much steeper slope than the warm front, causing a narrower band of cloud and precipitation
than a warm front
 Whilst most warm fronts look the same, the cold fronts are often varied
 Dust storms may be associated
In the cold front passage:
 there are also different types of cold fronts such as, a slow-moving cold front and a fast-moving cold
front (normal cold front)
 Wind direction and speed will change when a cold front move over land
 Slow-moving cold front: typically characterised by Ns and As, it displays a uniform overcast sky.
Light rain occurs ahead of the front, which becomes heavier as the front passes. There is no sharp
clearance of cloud.

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Slow Moving Cold Front

 Fast-moving cold front: typically characterised by Cu, TCU and Cb. Showers predominate before
and after the passage of the front. These showers may be heavy and be of hail and/or rain.
 Thunderstorms may result from the Cb. After the front passes, bright periods occur between the
clearing showers. The cold front often overhangs near the ground, due to surface friction.

Fast Moving Cold Front

Ana-front:
 When the warm air motion is
upwards at the cold front, it is
a front of the ‘Ana’ type,
where the cross section
shows Cu/Cb as the major
frontal cloud
 This tends to be the case
when the advancing cold air
is pushing the warm air out of
its way
Kata-front:
 The alternative to a cold ana-
front is a cold kata-front
 A cold kata-front is the name
given to a cold front at which
there is a significant
downward component of
motion in the warm air
 Best thought of as arising
when the warm air is leaving
an area, and the cold air is
passively coming in behind it
to occupy the space which
would otherwise be left
 With a downward motion,
large convective cloud is not a
problem and instead there is some Ns or perhaps only a little St/Sc in the extreme case
 This type of cold front is most common in Australia
Behind the cold front:
 dew points usually fall sharply at the front, with a further fall as the cold air becomes established.
 The cold air mass has a lower and warmer tropopause
 The cold front jet is located in the warm air mass, but, because of the steep front slope, only 200 nm
behind the surface position of the cold front
 The cold front jet is usually stronger than the warm front jet, by 20 knots or more (a further
consequence of the steeper cold front slope)
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 A steeper front means that the temperature gradient will also be steep and at height, the thermal
contrast will be greater, giving a larger thermal wind component
 CAT in association with the cold front jet is again associated with regions of maximum windshear,
on the cold air mass side of the jet, and also both above and below the cold jet

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(c) wave depressions;
 Are a region of low pressure at the surface, with the pressure gradually rising as you move away
from the centre
 As air in the upper troposphere changes direction and speed, it can sometimes leave a gap or void
behind it which is filled by air rising up from the surface
 The outflow of air from an area
is called “divergence”, whilst the
inflow of air to the area of low
pressure is called
“convergence”
 Because of the Coriolis effect
has influence over air’s
direction and speed, the
strength and direction of the air
flow depends on the pressure
gradient, latitude and
hemisphere
 In the Southern Hemisphere,
winds circulate around a
depression in a clockwise
direction, and vice versa in the
Northern hemisphere
 A depression can be formed as
a result of surface heating,
interaction between air masses,
or the movement of an air mass over a mountain range
(d) occluded fronts;
 When a cold front moves faster than a warm front and overtakes it, the warm sector between the two
fronts is closed, forming an occluded front, causing the warm sector air to be lifted
 There are two types of occluded fronts possible, with the first being a cold front occlusion. A cold
front occlusion is formed if the air behind the cold front is colder of the two cold air masses, it will
undercut the cold air under the warm air
 The next possible occlusion is called a warm front occlusion. In this case, the air under the warm
front is colder of the two cold air masses. As a result, the air behind the cold front rides over the very
cold air mass
 In both types of occlusions warm air is pushed aloft, generating of clouds and precipitation will occur
if there is sufficient lifting of the warm air

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 Warm occlusions tend to give the most violent weather

Page 18 of 37
 (e) tropical cyclones;
 Cyclones are made up of an approximately circular mass of cloud with a cloud and precipitation
minimum in the centre
 To be identified as a tropical cyclone, the winds must be at least 34 knots around the eye
 As a cyclone develops, the area of the gale-force winds expands outwards to 100 to 600 kilometres
and can be highly asymmetric
 The winds will increase rapidly towards the centre, with the strongest winds occurring in a narrow
band surrounding the eye (maximum winds can reach 150 knots or more)
 Overall, tropical cyclones bring very violent winds and torrential rain
(f) the equatorial trough.
 trade winds of each hemisphere blow equatorward from the subtropical high-pressure belt towards a
zone of relatively low pressure and is known as an equatorial trough
 the mean position of the centre of the equatorial trough is not at the equator, but at about latitude
5oN

2.8 Flight considerations

2.8.1 With respect to the phenomena listed below in subclause 2.8.2, do the following:
(a) state the conditions that are favourable to the development of the phenomenon and, where applicable,
its dispersal;
(b) recognise signs which may indicate the presence of each phenomenon;
(c) describe the effect of the phenomenon on flight characteristics;
(d) where applicable, state the pilot actions required to minimise the effect of the phenomenon on an
aircraft in flight.
2.8.2 The following is a list of meteorological phenomena that is for the purposes of subclause 2.8.1:
(i) thermals, turbulence;
Thermals:
 As the sun warms the ground, the ground warms the air directly above it and small plumes of
hot air begins to rise, something like bubbles
 As the plumes rise, they spin around randomly and eventually start bumping into each other
 These plumes continue to bump into each other as they rise, turning into larger and larger
blobs
 They develop into thermals at roughly 300-600 feet
 Thermals twist and flow with the wind as they rise and can last anywhere from a few seconds
to 20 minutes
 As they continue to rise, they cool and eventually reach the same temperature as the
surrounding air (usually at the boundary layer)
 The best areas for thermal development are dark areas that absorb energy from the sun
Turbulence:
 Occurs when winds fluctuate rapidly over short distances
 Within a single rising air current, flight may be smooth, but turbulence is felt where there is
significant differential in vertical speeds, i.e. where one vertical current is rising quickly relative
to adjacent air and when the adjacent air is descending, the difference is accentuated
 Turbulence is usually most severe in and around mature thunderstorms that have strong
updrafts and downdrafts associated with them
 Turbulence can also be encountered over cumulonimbus tops in the form of atmospheric
waves, caused by a deeply unstable atmosphere and vigorous upward currents “punching”
into the upper atmosphere
Turbulence Near Thunderstorm Tops (TNTT) guidelines are as follows:
 Avoid thunderstorm by 20 nm (37 km)
 Do not fly within the anvil or in the thunderstorm tops
 If flying over thunderstorms is unavoidable, the distance an aircraft should maintain above the
tops depends upon the wind speed. For a wind of 100 knots (at flight level), the distance
should be 10 000 feet, for each increment of 10 knots above or below 100 knots, 1000 feet
should be added or subtracted respectively
(ii) dust devils and dust storms;
Dust devils:
 Are rotating columns of warm air with central updrafts, made visible by rising columns of dust
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  Small-scale but extreme turbulence may be experienced in a dust devil
 Often found over hot surfaces, when winds are light
 High speed rotating winds may also occur at the intersection of sea breeze fronts or other
regions where wind shear exist
 Dust devils are generally short-lived and have diameters of less than 30 meters or so and may
only reach a few hundred feet into the air, however can last much longer and rise much higher
over desert areas in summer
Classification of turbulence

INTENSITY AIRSPEED G-LOAD (G) VERTICAL AIRCRAFT REACTION REACTION INSIDE

FLUCTUATION GUSTS (FEET AIRCRAFT
S (KNOTS) PER MIN)
LIGHT 5 – 14.9 0.15 – 0.49 300 - 1199  Rhythmic bumpiness  Little effect on
 Momentary changes in loose objects
altitude and attitude
MODERATE 15 – 24.9 0.5 – 0.99 1200 - 2099  Rapid bumps or jolts  Unsecured
 Appreciable changes in objects move
altitude and attitude  Strain on
seatbelts
SEVERE = > 25 1.00 – 1.99 2100 - 2999  Large abrupt changes  Unsecured
in altitude and attitude objects tossed
 Momentary loss of about
control
EXTREME > 2.00 >3000  Practically impossible  Unsecured
to control aircraft objects tossed
 May cause structural about
damage

Dust storms:
 Reduce visibility and affects take-offs and landings, as they are associated with very strong
winds
 Engines can also be damaged by ingesting the dust
(iii) wind gradient, wind shear and low-level jetstreams;
Low level jets:
 Very high wind speeds occur at low levels early in the morning referred to as low level jets
 Jets occur in regions concentrated into narrow bands of pressure just above the earths
surface and occur with surface radiation inversions are strongest (i.e., early hours of the
morning)
 The inversions are effective in shielding the flow above from surface frictional effects, thus
allowing the wind speed to increase in a narrow stream near the top of the inversion
 These low level jets can be produced with a combination of inversions and geography, with
hills and escarpments assisting in there formation (considering the previous conditions are still
present)
 They can also be observed just ahead of cold fronts
Low level windshear:
 Occurs when both airspeed and
direction change
 Is often signatured by clouds moving in different directions at different levels and by smoke
plumes rising vertically before streaming off at acute angles
 On a small scale, low-level wind shear is manifested as eddies and gustiness, but on a larger
scale, occurs when two air masses moving at different speeds and/or from different directions
come into contact, one sliding over the other
 Thunderstorm outflows, land/sea breezes, low-level jets, frontal systems, mountain waves and
inversions are all associated with wind shear capable of disrupting and aircraft
 It can significantly impair aircraft performance and is particularly hazardous to aircraft
approaching stalling speeds
(iv) anabatic and katabatic winds;
Anabatic winds:
 Are winds generated by rising air

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  Air in contact with a slope warms by conduction and
ascends (not necessarily following the slope)
 The upward flow will be strongest in the early
afternoon and over sun facing slopes
Katabatic winds:
 Are winds generated from a cold layer of air falling
down a slope
 This layer of air is cooled by conduction and becomes
denser than near free air, resulting in it draining to
lower levels
 The severity of the winds are determined by the
degree of cooling along the slope (the colder the
surface, the greater the potential for the generation of
very dense air), the roughness of the slope (smoother
promotes uninterrupted and therefore stronger flow) and the steepness of the slope (gentle
being more favourable for katabatic winds as there is less mixing of winds)
(v) mountain waves and fohn winds;
Mountain waves:
 There will be severe updrafts and downdrafts on the lee side of a mountain during mountain
waves
 Whilst lenticular clouds are a common indicator of mountain waves, they may not be present
depending on the moisture percentage
 Most likely to form when 25kt+ winds are blowing perpendicular to a mountain range at the
peak which is wedged between two unstable layers of air
Fohn winds:
 When moist air is lifted by a mountain range, the air may saturate (clouds form)
 If precipitation occurs on the windward side, the overall moisture content of the air passing
over the mountain will be reduced, therefore the cloud base will be lower on the windward
side of a mountain
 Descending air will be drier and thus warmer
 On the windward side, the air cools at the DALR until the base of the cloud, where it will then
cool at the SALR within the cloud
 On the leeward side, the air will then warm at the SALR until the cloud base, where it will
warm at the DALR
 There are lower cloud base and precipitation on the windward side of the mountain
 There are higher cloud base on the lee slopes and therefore higher temperatures and hence
lower density at low levels
(vi) land and sea breezes;
When do they occur:
 Land Breeze usually occurs during the evening and the night time
 Sea Breeze occurs during hot, summer days (strongest in the afternoon)
Land breeze:
 In coastal regions at night, land breezes can develop from difference in temperature of the
sea and land at night
 Because of radiation cooling, the land cools at a significantly faster rate than the ocean and
eventually becomes cooler than the sea, resulting in a higher pressure than the sea
 The air in contact with the land then cools more rapidly than the air over the sea, resulting in
the air at altitudes to sink, causing a low pressure
 With the pressure being higher over the sea at the same altitude, the air moves towards the
land and replaces the air sinking
 Because of the difference in pressure, air moves towards the place of lower pressure, in this
case, moving to over the sea at the surface and moving over the land at altitude
 Land breezes are not as strong as sea breezes
 The temperature differences are smaller and so the local pressure gradient is weaker

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Sea breeze:
 Is created when land is heated faster
than the sea, and is most prevalent on
sunny days during the afternoon at the
greatest variation in land and sea
temperatures
 The heated air above the warm land
rises and expands, thus the pressure
above the land becomes higher than the
pressure above the sea at the same
altitude
 At sea level, the pressure over the sea is
higher than that over the land because
the air is denser and thus tends to move
from sea to land
 At latitudes greater than 20 degrees, the
Coriolis force becomes strong enough to
change the direction of the breeze
 Sea breeze starting as an easterly will,
over time, turn north-easterly, and a sea
breeze starting as a westerly will
eventually turn south-westerly
 Sea breezes from adjacent coastlines
can converge and cause a large vertical
motion, which can trigger showers and thunderstorms, particularly in the tropics
 Sea breeze can generate circulations of wind called dust devils when interacting with the
prevailing surface wind
 Dust devils causes MOD turbulence in clear air due to them exhibiting strong horizontal and
vertical wind shear at low levels
 Prevailing surface winds can also shift the direction of the sea breeze
(vii) inversions and fog;
Fog:
 Is the most frequent cause of low visibility at airports and is one of the most important hazards
to aviation
 Fog obscures visibility between 1000 metres and less, making runways unusable if covered
by fog
 Fog forms in the same basic way as cloud, either through radiation or advection
 Radiation fog is formed when moist air is cooled below its dew-point by contact with a cold
land surface that is losing heat by radiation
 Ideal conditions for radiation fog are: high relative humidity at low levels so that little cooling
is required for saturation, cloudless or near cloudless skies to allow large heat loss at the
surface and light winds to promote cooling through a few hundred feet of the surface
 Advection fog primarily forms by cooling from the below, with the difference being that the
moist air flows over a cold surface
 Moist air may flow from a relatively warm sea to a cold land mass to form Advection fog, and
another example is moist air flowing from warm seas to relatively cold seas, occurring most
frequently when moist air streams move poleward over colder ocean waters
 Steam fog forms when a cold moist air mass flows over a much warmer water body, the
evaporation of water from the warm water surface causes the air above the surface to
become saturated
 Frontal fog occurs at the boundary of two air masses, rather than within a single air mass, as
in the case of the previously discussed types. It occurs as cloud reaching or descending to the
surface at the frontal edge, or forms in precipitation when the air becomes saturated
Inversion:
 Convection is restricted below an inversion as the temperature gets warmer again, so the air
will not be able to rise easily
 Expected conditions are clear smooth air above the inversion and possibly bumpy lower
visibility air below the inversion (more power is also expected below the inversion as the air is
denser).
 Can also affect diurnal variations in temperature since the inversion is preventing the upper
extent of convection and conduction, the rise in temperature below the inversion will be great.
 Types of inversion: ground, turbulence, subsidence and frontal
Page 22 of 37
  Ground inversion: develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it
becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere. This occurs most often on clear nights when
the ground cools off rapidly by terrestrial radiation. If the temperature of surface air drops
below its dew point, fog may result. Ground inversions vary, depending largely on topography,
where, if the land is hilly or rolling, the cold air formed on the higher land surfaces tends to
drain into the hollows, producing a larger and thicker inversion above low ground and little or
none above higher elevations.
 Turbulence inversion: often forms when inactive air overlies turbulent air. Within the
turbulent layer, vertical mixing carries heat downward and cools the upper part of the layer.
The unmixed air above is not cooled and eventually is warmer than the air below, therefore
creating an inversion.
 Subsidence inversion: develops when a widespread layer of air descends. The layer is
compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and , as a result,
the lapse rate of temperature is reduced. If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at higher
altitudes becomes warmer than at lower altitudes, producing a temperature inversion. This
type of inversion is common over northern continents in winter and over the subtropical
oceans. This is due to these regions generally having subsiding air since they are located
under large high-pressure centres.
 Frontal inversion: occurs when a cold air mass (cold front) undercuts a warm air mass and
lifts it aloft. The front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below.
Unlike other inversions that are nearly horizontal, this kind of inversion has a considerable
slope. In addition, humidity may be high, and clouds may be present immediately above it.
(viii) thunderstorms and microbursts;
Thunderstorms:
 In regions where the troposphere is sufficiently moist and unstable, and where there is a lifting
mechanism to initiate convection, convective clouds can grow to great heights and develop
into thunderstorms
 Thunderstorms are convective clouds (or aggregations of convective clouds) in which
electrical discharge can be seen as lightning and heard as thunder
 There are two basic types of thunderstorms: the ordinary and the supercell
Ordinary thunderstorm cell
 Most thunderstorms are of this type and form in an environment of weak vertical wind shear
 This type of cell is normally 5-10 km in horizontal extent and usually short lived in its mature
stage (15-30 minutes) due to its updraft becoming exhausted of moisture
Supercell thunderstorm
 The supercell is a larger (10-40 km across) more organised convective cell that forms in a
suitable environment of strong vertical wind shear, strong instability and large moisture supple
Typical phenomena associated with thunderstorms include:
 Heavy rain and flash floods
 Hail with diameter equal to or greater than two cm
 Tornado occurrence
 Wind gusts equal to or greater than 48 knots

Microbursts:
 Is created by an area of significantly rain-cooled, descending air that, after hitting ground
level, spreads out in all directions producing strong winds
 Can affect an area up to 4 km in diameter

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  As a cumulonimbus (Cb) cloud becomes mature, strong downdrafts occur, usually associated
with precipitation in the form of rain, hail or virga
 Can have significant affects on aircraft operation, especially at low-level. An aircraft
approaching a downburst will first encounter a strong headwind, which will lead to an increase
in IAS, but as the aircraft passes through the downburst, the wind becomes a tailwind and the
IAS and lift drop
(ix) downdrafts associated with terrain/cloud;
 It is advised to fly faster in downdrafts and slower through updrafts
 Similar to microburst, downdrafts can have significant implications when flying at low-level, as
discussed in the example
(x) atmospheric stability and instability;
Atmospheric stability:
 Knowing the conditions that come from a stable atmosphere (2.3.1) there will be overall
smooth flying with generally calm conditions
 A stable atmosphere will have stratiform cloud and inversions (fog) that could lead to poor
visibility
Atmospheric instability:
 Knowing the conditions that come from an unstable atmosphere (2.3.1) there will be
turbulence and a lot of precipitation through showers, hail and rainfall
 There is typically good visibility in unstable atmospheres when clear of clouds, showers and
dust storms
 Cumulus and TCU are indicators of an unstable atmosphere and can bring heavy showers
and thunderstorms
 Turbulent airflow and convection and severe weather are all results of an unstable
atmosphere
(xi) hoar frost, rime, and clear airframe ice;
Hoar frost:
 Is a white, feathery, crystalline deposit of ice that forms by deposition on surfaces having
temperatures below zero
 Can form on aircraft when passing quickly from cold dry, to warm moist air
 The water vapour in the warmer air can change directly to ice, this ice will quickly disappear if
the aircraft continues in the warmer air
 It usually occurs in clear air when and aircraft is on the ground and its skin temperature falls
below the frost point of the surrounding air
Rime ice:
 May be encountered in temperatures between 0 oC to -40 oC, but most frequently forms in
range of -10oC to -20 oC
 Tends to form on leading edges such as wings, fins and air intakes
 Air bubbles trapped between individual ice particles account for the brittle nature
 Usually encountered in stratiform clouds, but can also be produced in cumuliform
 Causes distortion in airflow and reduced aerodynamic efficiency
Clear (glaze) ice:
 Typically forms in temperatures 2oC to -10 oC with the presence of large water droplets
freezing drizzle or freezing rain
 Is the most dangerous type of structural ice because it is hard to see and can change the
shape of an aerofoil, the supercooled droplets will take slightly longer to freeze (they are
warmer) and therefore spread out over the wing, filling any gaps to prevent air from being
trapped
 Commonly experienced in cumuliform clouds and below cloud in freezing rain
(xii) tropical cyclones, tornadoes.
Tornadoes:
 Is a violently spinning vortex of air with a diameter varying from a few to several hundred
metres in which the central air pressure is extremely low and the horizontal pressure gradient
near its centre is intense
 Deep atmospheric instability is a prerequisite for its formations, so it is often associated with
thunderstorms, heavy rain and hail typical of when a Cumulonimbus is present
 Tornadoes occur exclusively over land and the most severe ones tend to occur in spring when
atmospheric instability is at its greatest
Page 24 of 37
  The most likely time of day is late afternoon
Tropical cyclone:
 Needs warm water to form, so will occur overwater between January and March (when the
water is warmest)
 They do not form near the equator
 For a cyclone to be classified as such, the maximum mean winds around the centre must
reach a speed of 34 knots or more
 They usually develop within the latitude bands 5o-20o but can develop as far as 30o from the
equator
Tropical Cyclones (formative stage):
 Develops in a pre-existing low-pressure trough over warm ocean water (sea surface
temperature exceeds 26oC)
 The system becomes more circular, the pressure in the centre decreases and winds increase
Tropical Cyclones (immature stage):
 Pressure falls below 1000 hPa and winds increase to 64 knots
 The convective clouds form into spirals and the eye develops
 The diameter of the storm may increase while the eye contracts as the storm strengthens
Tropical Cyclones (mature stage):
 At this stage, the cyclone is at its maximum size and strength
 The central pressure is table
Tropical Cyclones (decaying stage):
 When the cyclone has its energy supply interrupted, by moving over colder water or over land,
it reaches the decaying stage
 May persist over land as a rain-bearing depression or move into higher latitudes and interact
with frontal systems
 It may move into a region of increasing wind shear that disturbs the vertical alignment of the
system causing the upper and lower circulations to become separated

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2.9 Synoptic meteorology
2.9.1 Given a MSLP (Mean Sea-Level Pressure) analysis chart, identify:

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 (a) high and low pressure systems; and
(b) a trough, a ridge, a col; and
Trough: When isobars make a sharp bend around a Low, this bend
area is called a trough of low pressure or simply a trough.
Troughs are also often shaped like tongues and usually
contain weather similar to lows and fronts.
Ridge: When isobars turn a sharp corner around a High they form
what is called a ridge of high pressure, which is often shaped
like a tongue extending from the High centre. The weather in
a ridge is an extension of the weather in the High.
Col: A col is the name for the area of light variable winds that lies
between two neighbouring pressure systems. Often this area
contains either fog or thunderstorms. It is a point of
intersection of a trough and a ridge. It is a point of relatively
lowest pressure between two highs and the point of relatively
highest pressure between two lows.

Low Pressure Systems

High Pressure Systems

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Low Pressure Systems

High Pressure Systems

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(c) warm, cold and occluded fronts; and

Cold front

Warm front

Page 29 of 37
Occluded Front:

(d) a tropical cyclone; and

(e) approxi
mate wind
direction.
A mean sea
level
pressure
chart shows
the direct
relationship
between
isobar
spacing
(pressure
gradient) and
orientation,
and the strength
and direction of
surface
winds. The
general rule
is that winds
are strongest where the isobars are closest together. Thus, the strongest winds are usually experienced
near cold fronts, low pressure systems and in westerly airstreams south of the continent. Winds are normally
light near high pressure systems where the isobars are widely spaced.
Knowing that in the southern hemisphere, winds rotate clockwise around low-pressure systems and
anticlockwise around high-pressure systems, the approximate direction of the wind can be assumed, like in
the following image.

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2.9.2 Describe typical weather characteristics associated with the items listed in 2.9.1 (a) and (b) above in
the following terms:
(a) approximate wind direction;
(b) moisture content (dry or humid);
(c) cloud: stratiform and cumuliform;
(d) clear skies;
(e) turbulent or smooth air;
(f) good or poor visibility.
Low-pressure systems:
 Wind direction around low-pressure systems rotates clockwise, and is commonly associated with
poor visibility
 Also associated with inclement weather such as cloudy, windy, with possible rain or storms
High-pressure systems:
 Wind direction around high-pressure systems rotates anticlockwise, and is commonly associated
with good visibility and clear skies
 Air in a high-pressure area compresses and warms as it descends. This warming inhibits the
formation of clouds, usually resulting in sunny skies, however haze and fog may still form
Trough:
 Troughs are associated with colder air, low pressure aloft and a less stable atmosphere
 This tends to result in cooler and more unsettled weather conditions
Ridge:
 Fair weather is usually associated with ridges
 Air under a ridge sinks, which is not conducive for the development of clouds and precipitation
 Conditions under a ridge in summer are usually hot and dry
Col:
 Can be the site of any weather except strong winds
 Over land in the summer a col is an area which favours the development of thunderstorms, whilst
winter col conditions (maximum cooling due to clear skies and light winds) favour the development
of fog and low cloud

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2.10 Weather services
2.10.1 For given locations, determine from CASA documents the availability of aviation forecasts,
meteorological reports and weather briefing and state the method of obtaining this information.
2.10.2 State/select the conditions under which it is mandatory to obtain a forecast.
2.10.3 For information contained in an ARFOR, TAF, TTF, METAR, SPECI, AIRMET or SIGMET, do the
following:
(a) explain the coded information in plain language;
(b) decide whether a particular forecast is valid for a flight;
(c) apply the information to planning and conducting a flight.
2.10.4 Given a typical weather briefing, evaluate weather information applicable to a flight, and:
(a) assess likely changes (both improving and deteriorating) in weather during the flight; and
(b) list phenomena which may adversely affect the flight.
2.10.5 List the conditions that require a pilot to submit a short AIREP.
2.10.6 State the purpose of VOLMET and ATIS broadcasts indicate how this information is obtained and
apply this information to practical scenarios.
2.10.7 State what is meant by a Hazard Alert service.

2.11 Climatology
2.11.1 Describe typical seasonal weather conditions in different regions of Australia with reference to:
(a) visibility (good/poor); and
 Dust in central Australia, northern part of desert in winter, southern part of desert in summer
 Radiation fog in southern Australia in winter may occur if conditions are suitable.
(b) prevailing winds; and
Summer (January)
Winter (July)
Northern Australia (north of ITCZ): NW Monsoons
Northern Australia: SE Trades Northern Australia (south of ITCZ): SE Trades
Southern Australia: SW Southern Australia: NW –SW
(c) typical cloud patterns and precipitation; and
In Summer:
(north)  ITCZ -Cu/Cb/Ts, heavy rain, severe icing
In Winter:
(north)  Clear
(east coast)  Cu/Cb/Ts/+SH
(south)  Cu/Cb with fast moving cold fronts

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Australian Weather and Precipitation in Summer

Australian Weather and Precipitation in Winter

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Notes

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