Lecture Notes on Analog Electronics:

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR AND

Chapter V: BIASING CIRCUITS

I. INRODUCTION

Transistor is one of the fundamental components of electronics. Advancements made in

modern electronics are due to the invention and improvement of transistors. Developments in
transistor technologies have enabled massive advancements in telecommunications,
computing, and media technology. The colossal explosion of digital electronics in new
wireless media technology and computing is due to advances in semiconductor technology to
create transistors in huge quantities and diminutive sizes that switch very fast. Fabrication of
fast transistors has allowed the dominance of digital electronics over analog electronics in
communication and media technology. Two basic types of transistors are the bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) and the field-effect transistor (FET). The BJT is used in two broad
areas- as a linear amplifier (analog electronics) to amplify an electrical signal and as an
electronic switch (digital electronics). Before bipolar junction transistor (BJT) the device used
to manipulate analog electrical signal was the electronic valve or tube. The valve has many
problems when used in electronic circuits. They are very unreliable: their characteristics vary
considerably from nominal values, they are bulky, require two different circuits (one for the
amplifier behavior and another for the heating of the cathode filament), life
expectancy is short, and they require large amounts of energy dissipation. The BJT solves or
reduces all these problems as it is fabricated using solid-state material.

II. DEFINITION AND SYMBOL

II.1: Definition

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the
voltage across two terminals controls the current flowing in/out of a third terminal.

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II.2: Symbol

The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor
regions separated by two p-n junctions. For this reason, there are two types of BJT. The NPN
and the PNP transistors. The three regions are called emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C).

NPN Transistor PNP Transistor

III. CONSTRUCTION OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

Bipolar transistors are formed from three layers of semiconductor material. Two device
polarities are possible. The first is formed by placing a thin layer of p-type semiconductor
between two layers of n-type material to form an NPN transistor. The second is formed by
placing a thin layer of n-type semiconductor between two layers of p-type material to give a
PNP transistor. Electrical connections are made to each layer of the device, the three
electrodes being called the emitter, base and collector. Both kinds of device are widely used
and circuits often combine transistors of different polarities. The operation of the two forms is
similar, differing mainly in polarities of the voltage and currents.

The NPN and the PNP transistors can be mounted with PN junction diodes as shown below:

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Figure 5. 1: NPN transistor model with PN junctions

Points to be noted:

 Narrow base region is coupling between two „back-to-back‟ p-n junctions.

 Emitter injects electrons into base region of transistor. All electrons travel
across narrow base. These electrons are removed by collector.
 Base-emitter-voltage „VBE „ and base-collector-voltage „VBC‟ determine current in
transistor. If VBE and VBC are positive, they forward bias their p-n junctions.
 Terminal currents are collector current , base current ( ) and emitter current
( ).
 Collector current and base current enter transistor terminals. Emitter current exits the
transistor.

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Figure 5.2: PNP transistor model with PN junctions

Points to be noted:

 If voltages „VEB‟ and „VCB‟ are positive, then they will forward bias their respective
p-n-junctions.
 Collector current and base current exit transistor terminals. Emitter current enters the
transistors.
IV. BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible
ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the
input and output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within
a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

 1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

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IV.1: The Common Base (CB) Configuration

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the base
connection is common to both the input signal and the output signal with the input signal
being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is
taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal
grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point. The input current flowing into the
emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and collector current respectively
therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter current input resulting in a
current gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity) or less, in other words the common base
configuration "attenuates" the input signal.

Figure 5.3: The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that

the signal voltages Vin and Vout are in-phase. This type of transistor arrangement is not very
common due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its output characteristics
represent that of a forward biased diode while the input characteristics represent that of an
illuminated photo-diode. Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of
output to input resistance or more importantly "load" resistance (RL) to "input" resistance
(Rin) giving it a value of "Resistance Gain". Then the voltage gain (Av) for a common base
configuration is therefore given as:

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 Common Base Voltage Gain

(5.1)

Where: is the current gain, and is the resistance gain.

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as
microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very good high
frequency response.

VI.2: The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied
between the base, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as
shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based
amplifiers and which represents the "normal" method of bipolar transistor connection. The
common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power gain of all
the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is
LOW as it is connected to a forward-biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH
as it is taken from a reverse-biased PN-junction.

Figure 5.4: The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

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In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the
currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as:

(5.2)

Also, as the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of
the common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of and is given

the Greek symbol of Beta, (β).

(5.3)

As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio
of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will
always be less than unity

. (5.4)

Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by
the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current (Ib), will
result in a much larger change in the collector current (Ic). Then, small changes in current
flowing in the base will thus control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically,
Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors.

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical relationship
between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

and

and

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(5.5)

(5.6)

(5.7)

Where: " " is the current flowing into the collector terminal, " " is the current flowing into
the base terminal and " " is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.

Then to summarise, this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a greater input impedance,
current and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is
much lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit resulting in
the output signal being 180o out-of-phase with the input voltage signal.

VI.3: The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now

common through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the
output is taken from the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly
known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit. The emitter follower
configuration is very useful for impedance matching applications because of the very high
input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of Ohms while having a relatively
low output impedance.

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Figure 5.5: The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value of
the transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in
series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current. As the emitter
current is the combination of the collector and the base current combined, the load resistance
in this type of transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the input current
of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is given as:

 The Common Collector Current Gain

(5.7)
This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the signal
voltages of Vin and Vout are in-phase. It has a voltage gain that is always less than "1"
(unity). The load resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the base and

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collector currents giving a large current gain (as with the common emitter configuration)
therefore, providing good current amplification with very little voltage gain.

V. MODES OF OPERATION OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

A transistor has two modes of operation. It can either operation in the saturation or cutoff
regions functioning as a switch or operate in the active region functioning as an amplifier.

V.1: Description

 Cut-off region: The transistor is off. There is no conduction between the collector and
the emitter. (IB = 0 therefore IC = 0). Hence the transistor functions as a switch in the
off state.
 Active region: The transistor is on. The collector current is proportional to and
controlled by the base current (IC = βIB) and relatively insensitive to VCE. In this
region the transistor functions as an amplifier.
 Saturation region: The transistor is on. The collector current varies very little with a
change in the base current in the saturation region. The VCE is small, a few tenths of a
volt. The collector current is strongly dependent on VCE unlike in the active region. It
is desirable to operate transistor switches in or near the saturation region when in
their on state.

The above description can be summarized on the figures below:

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Figure 5.6: Input-output characteristics

Figure 5.7: Transistor operation modes

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Table 5.1: Operation condition and modes

V.1.1: Cutoff

If both junctions „JE‟ and „JC‟ are reverse biased, transistor is doing nothing. A
very little current flows. It corresponds to a logical “OFF‟, or an open switch.

Figure 5.8: Cutoff in transistor

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V.1.2: Active

It is of two types. forward active and reverse active. Both of these modes have
been described below.

V.1.2.1: Forward active

In this, emitter-base junction is forward biased. Base-collector junction is reverse

biased. BJTs possess very large “common-emitter current gain ( )” in this forward
active mode. In this case, collector-emitter current is proportional to base current.

Figure 5.9: Forward active mode

Applying an output loop we have;

( ) (5.8)

Comparing the above equation 5.8 with , which is a straight line with slope ( )

and intercept .

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This straight line in the case of transistors is known as “D.C. load line”. It is shown in
Figure 5.10 below.

Figure 5.10: DC load line

 Operating point ( Q point)

Zero signal values of „IC‟ and „VCE‟ are called „operating point‟. In a circuit, operating
conditions of transistor are described in terms of „VCE‟ and „IC‟. „VCE‟ and „IC‟ fix up operating
points of transistor. Operating point is also decided by number of other factors like VCC, RC,
RB, VBE and VBB. Firstly, values of VCC and RC are determined, which insure „operating-point‟
of transistor lying on its „D.C.-load line‟. Exact operating point lying on D.C. load line is
decided by value of base current „IB‟. Base current „IB‟ is decided by value of „VBE‟ (of
transistor), RB and VBB.

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V.2: BIASING METHODS OF BJTs

Three biasing methods are described below.

V.2.1: Fixed biasing

Figure 5.11: Fixed biasing

Operating point in fixed biasing is obtained by following three steps

Step 1: Find base current IB

(5.9)

As, VBE << VCC, therefore;

(5.10)

Step 2: Find collector current

provided (5.11)

Step 3: Find collector emitter voltage „VCE‟.

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(5.12)

V.2.2: Biasing with base resistances (voltage divider bias)

Figure 5.12: Biasing with base resistances; Equivalent Thevenin viewed from the base

With:

(5.13)

And

(5.14)

(5.15)
⁄

VCE VCC - (RC + Re) IC (5.16)

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V.2.3: Biasing with feedback resistor

Figure 5.13: Biasing with feedback resistor

(5.17)

(5.18)
⁄

VCE VCC - RC IC (5.19)

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