PROTOCOLS

There are specific rules, which determine how the data should be transferred over the
networks, compressed, presented on the screen, and so on. These sets of rules are called
Protocols.

Let us learn about the most common protocols and their unique features:

INTERNET PROTOCOLS

1. TCP/IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It is a family of

protocols defining conventions for communication between computers over the Internet. It
is the basic communication protocol of the Internet.

TCP/IP is a two-layer program. The higher layer, TCP, manages the breaking down and
assembling of the data, whereas the lower layer, IP, is responsible for the accurate delivery
of the data over the Internet.

How does TCP/IP work?

The information that we send through the Internet is broken into packets by TCP using the
technique of Packet-switching. It is a digital networking communication method which
breaks the large data into suitably-sized blocks known as Packets. The IP is responsible for
sending these packets to the right address by assigning them a sequence number.

2. SMTP (SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the most common protocol used for transferring e-
mails between two or more servers. It generally sends the messages from a mail client to a
mail server. Apart from transferring e-mail, SMTP also provides notification regarding the
incoming mail. However, it cannot transmit pictures, sounds, or movies. It is capable of
sending text only.

3. POP3 (POST OFFICE PROTOCOL VERSION 3}

POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3) is another commonly used e-mail protocol. It helps
to retrieve e-mails from a remote web server using a local client. All POP3 mail servers have
a unique address provided by the e-mail service provider.

4. HTTP

HTTP or Hypertext Transfer Protocol determines how different programs exchange data
over the Internet. The HTTP is the standard protocol used by the World Wide Web. It defines
how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions the web servers and
browsers should take in response to various commands.

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is responsible for accessing hypertext documents on the
world wide web. To visit any website, we must type its URL which has a standard format.
The 'http' part of the URL signals the device that the requested file is an 'http' file. For
example, [Link]

5. HTTPS

HTTPS stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. HTTPS is used for secure
communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet. HTTPS
protocol encrypts the information or data using Transport Layer Security (TLS)
certificate or its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer ( SSL) certificate. The certificate
establishes a secured connection for data transmission between the server and the
browser. It ensures that the data which is in transaction remains private and is not misused
by fraudsters and cybercriminals.

FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOLS

FTP or File Transfer Protocol is a standard Internet Protocol for exchanging files between
two or more computers on the Internet over TCP/IP protocols. FTP uses TCP/IP protocols to
upload or download files to our computers from other sources.

Let us learn some FTPs:

1. SSH (SECURE SOCKET SHELL) PROTOCOL
Data protection is an integral part of any network system. In a client-server architecture,
SSH protocol, also known as Secure Socket Shell Protocol, is predominantly used for
securing data over an unsecured network. It establishes a secure connection between the
client and the host computer. It transfers files over a network by using the services of other
associated security protocols like SFTP and SCP. SSH was designed as a replacement for
Telnet and remote shell protocols.

2. SFTP (SECURE FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

Both FTP and SFTP allow files and data transfer over a secured network. The FTP sends
data and commands over a network in text form, even important credentials like username
and password are sent in text form, leaving data unsecured. SFTP encrypts
the data in a binary form, thereby making it secure.

3. SCP (SECURE COPY PROTOCOL)

SCP (Secure Copy) is a protocol that helps in moving files between two connected
machines over a network in an encrypted form. The SCP along with SSH protocol ensures
the authenticity and confidentiality of the data over an unsecured network. The
SCP protocol uses services offered by Secure Shell (SSH) for data transfer and use the
same mechanisms used by SSH for authentication.

4. TELNET
Telnet is a protocol that is used for accessing a remote computer. Telnet provides easy
access to remote host computers, that uses different OS, devices or networks. It allows the
user to login on the remote computer system using the correct login and sign in
credentials.

5. SMTP
6. TCP/IP

INTERNET SERVICES are software-based services, which are offered by an electronic

device to another device communicating with each other via World Wide Web, are
called Internet Services.
Information retrieval- Using the Internet, you can access any information as and when
required. For this you need a web browser to retrieve the data. A web browser is a software
application that allows you to visit various websites on the internet and display their
content on the World Wide Web, including web pages, images, videos, or other files on your
computer.
SEARCH ENGINE
Search Engine is an application that helps a user in finding information or documents from
the Internet.
SEARCH ENGINE TIPS
Some tips to optimise your search results are listed below:
• To get exact results, add the query in double quotes. For example, "Best-selling
books in India".
• Imagine you are searching for a quote and you do not remember it fully. Enclose the
text in double quotes and add an asterisk(*) symbol. For example, the search "There
is nothing* except change."
• To compare two words or phrases, use the word ‘vs’ between them.
• Search in the lowercase words is not case-sensitive, but the search in uppercase
words is case-sensitive.

WEB SERVICES
CHAT- Chat is an online conversation and is more personalised. Writing e-mails is a
time consuming process as compared to a way of communication in which the users
can instantly send messages back and forth to each other. This way of communication
is known as Online Chatting. In the e-mail, one has to type e-mail address or a
particular subject of mail, but in chatting, one can write without caring about any
syntax. Chats can be either point-to-point, where only one receiver gets the message or
it can be a group communication.

EMAIL- Electronic Mail (E-mail) allows users to send and receive messages in real time.
It is a cost-effective and eco-friendly form of communication as it saves paper as well
as postage cost. E-mail also provides the provision for sending attachments, such as
pictures, songs, videos, etc., along with the text message. An e-mail consists of two
main parts- the header and the body. The header contains the name and address of the
recipient and the body contains the message.

An e-mail is delivered to its destined e-mail account with the help of the mentioned
e-mail address. E-mail Account is an electronic mailbox on a network where e-mails
can be sent and received. To send and receive e-mails, we need to have an e-mail
address. To read or download the e-mails, you must sign in using your username and
password. An e-mail address usually consists of two parts - username and domain
name, separated by the@ (pronounced as 'at') symbol. Eg. abc@[Link], here abc is
username and gmail is the domain name.

STRUCTURE OF AN E-MAIL MESSAGE

From: This field contains the e-mail address of the sender of the mail.
To: You need to enter the recipient's address in the To field before you compose the
body of the e-mail. An example of an e-mail address is, [Link]@[Link].
Cc: When sending a message to multiple recipients, use the Cc (Carbon copy) field.
The e-mail addresses mentioned in this field are visible to all the recipients of the mail.
Bcc: It is also used to send a copy of the mail to several recipients. This way the
addresses of the other recipients mentioned in this field will not be shown. It is
therefore called Blind Carbon Copy.
Subject Line: It include important information which depicts what the e-mail is about.
Attach Files: It is used to add attachments like files, audio, video, etc., in your e-mail.

VIDEO CONFERENCING- When you cannot meet in person, video conferencing is the
best option to have face-to-face interaction in real time. A Video Conference can be
considered as a phone call with pictures that allows multiple people, sitting at
geographically different locations, to communicate with each other by exchanging
video and audio at the same time. It involves the use of a camera known as a Webcam
and a microphone at the end of each participant to capture video and audio data in real
time. Video conferencing is mainly used for virtual meetings among a group of people to
discuss political, business, medical, or social affairs. Some of the most popular areas
of application of video conferencing are journalism, media, education, tourism, and in
the legal profession.

ADVANTAGES OF VIDEO CONFERENCING

+ It has become easier to conduct corporate meetings between the branches of a

company that are situated far away.

+ People can work together and share their ideas.

+ It is a more economical means of communication as companies can save on travel

and hotel costs.

+ The meetings can be organised on short notice as people can easily participate from
distant locations.

+ Video conferencing increases business productivity. People can readily address

problems and facilitate corporate decisions within the company.

+ Students present at different locations can attend lectures and training through video
conferencing.

+ It is an excellent way of keeping in touch with family and friends staying at distant

places.

DISADVANTAGES OF VIDEO CONFERENCING

+ A very reliable and fast connection is needed all the time to conduct video

conferencing.

+ Even with a fast connection, there might be a slight delay between responses that can

disrupt the natural flow of conversation.

+ The major disadvantage is the technical difficulty associated with it, that is software,

hardware, or network failure. It may disrupt the flow of the meeting.

+ High quality dedicated video conferencing systems are expensive to buy.

+ People could be in different time zones around the world. The chances are that some

people may have to stay back during odd hours in the night to attend the meeting.
E-LEARNING- E-Learning means "Electronic Learning". It refers to a wide range of
applications and processes, designed to provide guidance and/or deliver information to
students, faculties, or employees of the companies through electronic means. It also
provides facility to download study materials from various universities. The study material
can contain various types of media, like audio, text, virtual environments, video, and
animation.
The following are some benefits of e-learning over regular classroom learning:
• Cost Effective: E-learning is less expensive as compared to traditional learning
because it reduces travel cost and time.
• E-Learning is Self-Paced: Self-paced learning modules allow learners to work at
their own pace, thereby controlling the speed of course coverage.
• Flexibility:A student can attend class anytime, anywhere. Education is available
whenever it is needed. You can download data in pdf, ppt, doc as well as in the mp4
format.
• Interactive and Hands on: E-learning makes it easier to grasp and retain
information as the learning is through visual modes, like graphics, animations,
videos, etc.
• Effectively Manageable: E-learning can be used to impart training to a large group
of students at a time. It allows a group of people to keep track of the course
offerings, schedule, and track their progress and results.
• Easy to Conduct Trainings: E-learning aids in conducting outline training of
employees, such as sales training, safety training, IT training, new product training,
etc. It saves the company's expenditure on bringing a trainer, renting the space for
training, and travel expenses.

Some of the disadvantages of e-learning are discussed below:

• No Control: In traditional classroom teaching-learning methodology, learning of the
students is monitored by the teacher. However, in e-learning, there is no direct
control of a teacher with the students’ understanding and their involvement in
learning.
• Lack of Interaction: E-learning does not provide an interactive environment like a
classroom. Here, the learner may choose to access a lecture according to his
convenience and time. Hence, learning becomes a solo activity.
• Lack of Authenticity: This is another major problem in e-learning as there is no
authenticity of a student's work. Anyone can do the assignments rather than the
actual student.
 • Dependence on Technology: Technology plays a vital role in the e-learning
process. The learner requires a computer, an Internet connection, multimedia
resources and specific software for e-learning. It adds up to the cost of e-learning.

E-banking- In internet banking, various banking functions can be

performed by a customer using the Internet. Mobile banking refers to making financial
transactions using a mobile device like a smartphone, tablet, etc. With net banking facility,
one can not only transfer money but can also pay bills, check bank statements, check
account balance, request for cheque book and various other financial transactions.

Advantages of Internet Banking

+ It is simple to open and use an Internet banking account.

+ It reduces the time to wait in a queue of a bank branch.

+ The personal bank accounts can be accessed anytime of the day, regardless of the
working hours of the bank.

+ Worldwide connectivity to the website of banks.

+ It is easier to keep a regular check on the account balance.

There are three ways in which Mobile banking operates- SMS messaging, Mobile Web, and
Mobile applications.

a. SMS messaging: You can get alerts and access account information.
b. Mobile web: You can operate your account by logging into your account via a mobile
web browser.
c. Mobile banking applications: These applications allow you to connect and access
complete banking functionality directly through the bank server, without going
through the mobile web browser.

E-SHOPPING- E-shopping or on line shopping refers to buying products and services over
the Internet. Online sellers describe their products and services through text, photos, and
multimedia files. Consumers can purchase a vast variety of products and services from
any part of the world.

The advantages of E-shopping are:

• Shopping Convenience: In the case of regular shopping, a person has to drive to

the store. However, with online shopping, the entire process is very convenient. A
 person just needs to log on to the Internet, access the online shopping website, and
choose the desired item.
• Information and Reviews: An online store provides reviews on the products. A
customer gets additional information that help in guiding them about the product.
• Price and Selection: Another interesting feature is the cheap deals and better
prices we get from the online stores because products reach us directly from the
manufacturer or seller without any middlemen involved.

The disadvantages of E-shopping are:

• Online shopping does not have the personal touch of shopping and the ability to try
the products, like clothes, cosmetics, etc.
• An important issue is on line security as making payments on line is not completely
safe.
• Only a few sites offer free shipping of products. Hence, the shipping cost acts as a
big discouragement for on line shoppers.
• A major problem in e-shopping is the hassle in returning the product and follow up
on the refund, or the exchange of items.
• There is a huge risk of online fraud. Some sites pretend to be selling products at a

meagre price, and the customers often receive a low quality or refurbished item for

that price.

• Sometimes, the sites shut down unexpectedly after taking the payment for items. As
a result, the customers do not receive anything in return for the price paid.

E-RESERVATION- E-reservation means making a reservation or appointment for a service

via the Internet. Using E-reservation, we can not only check the availability of seats in bus,
train, or aircraft anytime, but can also reserve rooms, meeting halls, or tables in restaurants
and hotels. For these services, we can check the payable charges at the same time, and by
instantly making an online payment through credit cards, we can confirm our reservations.

BENEFITS OF E-RESERVATION

Accessible anywhere: Buying an e-ticket is the most convenient method for booking a
hotel, flight, or car-on-rent. There is no need to visit a travel agent or make lengthy phone
calls. One can buy an e-ticket anywhere where there is an Internet connection.

Cost Cutting: You can visit multiple websites which enable you to choose the best price
when making an online reservation.
Commission Free: Another advantage of booking online is saving money on all the extra
hidden commission fees as there is no third-party involved.

Quick System: The booking process in any reservation system is fast. A user can search,
select, and book the tickets either by paying through credit cards or other payment apps
like Paytm, Google Pay, etc.

Changes and Cancellations: The process to change or cancel online reservations is easy.
Instead of calling the hotel or airline customer care representative, you can postpone or
cancel the service through the Internet and can quickly get your money refunded.

Customer Reviews: Another benefit of making an online reservation is that you are able to
see the customer reviews of that particular service or service provider. It helps you in
making the decision.

Safe and Reliable: E-reservation software provides a secure online transaction system by
taking preventive care of your confidential credit card/debit card information.

E-GOVERNANCE- E-Governance stands for Electronic Governance. It refers to the

integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in government processes,
services, and communications. It helps the government to improve the efficiency of service
delivery and the exchange of information. These interactions can be between government
to-citizens, government-to-business, or government-to-government.

The advantages of E-governance are:

• Expanded Reach of Government: With enhanced availability of the Internet services

in the country, more and more people can now connect to the government portals
available online.
• Increased Convenience: With the increased popularity and accessibility of online
government portals, services like applying for a passport, a licence, birth and death
certificate, etc. has become easy.
• High Transparency: The citizens can quickly get the information about the services
for which they may have applied, hence reducing the gap between the citizens and
the government.
• Reduced Corruption: Barrage of bureaucratic hurdles and inadequate mechanisms
of complaint handling can lead to corruption. E-governance makes all processes
transparent and clear.

The disadvantages of E-governance are:

 • Despite providing a high level of security, the government portals are still
vulnerable to cyber attacks, stealing, and misuse of data by hackers.
• Lack of awareness among people about the services provided by e-governance
has not been able to serve the purpose for which it was initiated.
• Non availability of Internet services in many rural and remote areas has made
access to the government portals difficult.

E-GROUP- An e-group (electronic group) is a virtual meeting place for individuals who
share the common interests. It provides a platform for people to share information on
topics of their interest, messages, and photo albums.

An e-group typically contains a discussion or message board where members can discuss
topics of their choice. The members of an e-group can start a discussion by posting a
message on the discussion board. All the other members of this group can view or reply to
this post. The best feature of an e-group is that one can access it anytime and remain
connected to the conversation thread. It also keeps you updated on the latest innovations
and achievements.

Examples are: [Link], [Link].

ADVANTAGES OF E-GROUPS

+ E-groups are accessible anytime and anywhere, as long as there is an Internet

Connection.

+ E-group discussions are stored for a long time and can be revisited whenever required.

+ E-groups encourage generally shy people to share their views about an event, idea, or an
issue.

+ E-groups provide valuable real-life experiences and up-to-date information on new

places that can be useful to other members of the group. It also keeps you updated on the
latest innovations and achievements.

+ E-groups allow their members to form an active and supportive community without
having a face-to-face meeting.

+ There are no boundaries as to where the discussions can be prolonged.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-GROUPS

+ The participants of an e-group communicate through text-based messages. No other

form of communication such as audio or video is facilitated.
+ Discussion in an e-group is not live. Therefore, a user may have to wait for an indefinite
period to receive a response to his post.

+ As a large number of people are involved in an e-group, their different opinions may take
the discussion to a different direction which is beyond the intended topic.

+ In an e-group, a message or a post is combined with all its replies to form a thread. Due to
the many messages in a thread, sometimes it becomes a difficult task to find the relevant
information.

SOCIAL NETWORKING- A Social Networking Site is an online platform that focuses on

facilitating the building of social networks or social relations among people who, for
example, share interests, activities, backgrounds, or real-life connections. Social
networking can be done for social purposes, business purposes or both. Social Networking
Sites are also called social media.

In a social networking website, every user has to create a profile, which contains
information about them, create a list of users with whom to share connections, and allows
the users to organise their social networks. The users can also join communities in these
sites, where they can share photos, messages, and videos, and hold discussions and
collect views and opinions on anything. They have the facility of inviting other people to join
these websites. Some major social networking sites in use are: Instagram, Facebook,
Twitter etc.

The advantages of Social-networking are:

Easier To Connect: The main advantage of social media is that it is easier to connect with
friends, families, classmates, customers. You can also rekindle old friendships, share
family photos,and special events in your life with just a click of the mouse.

Create New Connections: With social networking, you can seek out groups that are
focused towards special interests and hobbies.

Free Business Promotions: Companies and artists can reach a diverse and large number
of people using social media sites.

Aids in Criminal Cases: Social networking services are increasingly being used in
investigations of criminal cases. It can provide evidence in the form of photographs, status
updates, people's location at a particular time.

Spreads Information Incredibly Fast: Social networking sites provide a medium through
which news and other important information can spread like a virus. Important events or
casualties in a terror attack or missing children are all communicated and immediate
action can be taken for the same.

The disadvantages of Social-networking are:

Cyber Bullying: Increased use of communication technology has led to a new form of
harassment known as cyber bullying. Young kids publicly harass one another by sending or
posting abusive text messages, e-mails or pictures, which are visible to the entire cyber
world.

Less Real-Life Interaction: With the increase in social networking communities, people
prefer to meet their friends and relations via social networking sites, resulting in a lack of
personal interaction.

Misleading Information: Social networking sites can be a quick way for people to learn
about breaking news, but it is not always accurate. Some people spread false and
misleading information through these sites.

Fake Profiles: Social networking sites have a massive number of users with fake identities,
who may exploit other people and mislead them.

MOBILE TECHNOLOGIES
Social media and mobile technology have given people new ways to share their feelings,
expressions, and remaining in touch. The mobile technology has made the field of
communication easy and affordable for most people.
Mobile technology is a technology which is mainly used for communication in mobile
devices. The immense popularity of mobile technology is due to its affordability and the
range of services it provides like voice calling, sending text messages, GPS navigation,
sending e-mails, running various applications, conducting a business meeting or chatting
in a virtual form without any hassle, and as a gaming console.
Some of the most popular mobile technologies are:
SMS
"Short Message Service" (SMS) or "Texting". It is a quick and convenient way to send short
messages on mobile devices. Text messages have a limitation of 160 characters per
message. If a message is longer than 160 characters, it is broken up into multiple segments
of 160 characters each and sent in the same order as it is written.
MMS
MMS or "Multimedia Messaging Service" is an upgraded messaging service. Unlike SMS,
with an MMS, you can include multimedia content like pictures, audio, and video files
along with messages and send to another mobile device. MMS messages do not have a
standard limit; however, most carriers can reliably carry up to 300 Kb multimedia data at a
time. All the latest cell phones support MMS technology.
3G
The "G" stands for a generation of mobile technology. 3G is the third generation of wireless
mobile technology which made web browsing an enjoyable experience on mobile devices.
3G is an upgrade of 2G and [Link] networks, with faster Internet speed. Each generation
brought new frequency bands and higher data transmission rates. This made the streaming
of audio and video files possible without any interruption. It provides a data transmission
rate up to 2 Mbps.
4G
4G refers to the fourth generation of wireless communications which is a successor to 2G
and 3G family of standards. It is an IP based packet-switching integrated system with a
high-speed data transmission rate of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps. Nowadays, 4G technology is
widely used with other communication technologies like Broadcast and Satellite
communication. It provides expanded multimedia services at any time and anywhere as
per a user's requirement with high security and high speed.
5G
5G technology refers to the fifth generation of wireless technology, which was started in
late 2010. It is a complete wireless communication technology with almost no limitations
and is highly supportable to WWWW (Wireless World Wide Web). The 5G technology
provides large broadcasting of data with high speed in Gbps. This technology offers faster
data transmission than that of the previous generations and supports HD quality of
pictures, interactive multimedia, and streaming audio/video files.

INTERNET BASICS

The Internet is defined as a network of millions of computers connected worldwide

through telephone lines or cables.
WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)
The WWW (World Wide Web) commonly known as the Web, is a way of accessing
information over the Internet. It contains millions of documents called Web Pages. Each
page contains text, graphics, video, audio, and links to other web pages via hyperlinks. The
web uses HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) for the transfer of these documents over the
Internet.
HOW DOES THE WWW WORK?
A person who uses the Internet uses a software known as a Web Browser to request for a
document or a web page located somewhere on the web. The browser requests the
Internet host/server which contains that document. The browser thus acts as a customer
or a client. After receiving the request, the Internet host passes the information to the
clients. A network protocol controls the flow in this model. The protocol used in this
exchange is called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

WEB SERVER
A Server is a program that runs on a machine and is meant to provide services to the
machines (clients) connected to it. It accepts the requests which come to it from a client,
processes the requests, generates the response, and sends the required information to the
client. The communication between a client and a server uses HTTP protocol.
A Web server is a type of server which is responsible for providing web content. It primarily
hosts the websites and allows the clients or Internet users to access these sites. The
primary function of a web server is to store, process, and deliver web pages to clients. A
browser sends a request for a web page and the web server in return searches for the
requested page. It scans the requests sent by clients for any possible vulnerabilities and
malware, provides secure access to the website data, and prevents it from any
unauthorised access.
WEB CLIENT: A web client is an application (e.g. Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome) running on a local device (desktop, notebook, cell phone) that requests and uses
services provided by a web server. A web client and a web server are two components of a
connection. A client is any machine sending the requests for information, and the server is
responding to the information requested. Some examples of a web client are a web
browser, an e-mail program, a chatting program, and file sharing programs.

WEBSITE
A website is a collection of related web pages containing images, videos, or other digital
media located under the same domain name. The web pages are written in Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) and can be accessed via the Internet. These pages are linked
together through hyperlinks and hypertext. A website is hosted on a web server on the
World Wide Web. Each site is owned and managed by an individual, a company, or an
organisation.

WEB PAGE
A web page is a digital page which may contain text, hyperlink, videos, audios, images,
tables, etc. It is commonly written using HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and is stored
on a web server. Each web page is identified by a unique web address called Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).

WEB BROWSER
A web browser is a program that is used to visit different websites on the Internet by
providing the browsers with their respective address or URLs. It is an interface between a
user and the World Wide Web. A user can navigate files, folders, and websites with the help
of hyperlinks. A web browser can have a graphical user interface (GUI) or a text-based
interface.

WEB ADDRESS (URL)

The Uniform Resource Locator denotes the global address of web documents and web
resources. The communication between a web user and an Internet resource is possible by
identifying each resource on the Internet in a standardized manner. A uniform resource
locator is the same as Uniform Resource Identifier (URI). It can be defined as a string of
characters that is used to identify resources on the Internet.
An example of a website URL is as follows:
[Link]

Domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses since a name has a strong
correlation with the website. The Domain Name System (DNS) serves as a directory
for the web by locating and addressing devices in a worldwide network.

HTML
HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. It is a complete code package that allows
the user to create web pages that contain both text and graphics. All the web browsers are
designed to understand and interpret this language.
HYPERTEXT
<html>
<head>
<title>
My First Program
</title>
</body>
This is my first HTML program!!!!!

Hypertext refers to the combination of text and graphic images. It is a piece of ordinary text
that has a unique feature of linking to other documents or web pages. So, when you click
on the hypertext, it opens a new web page.

MARKUPS
Markups are special symbols or characters in an HTML file. These markups indicate how
the content will appear on the browser. The markup indicators are often called Tags.

BLOGS
A blog is an easy-to-create website that allows users to share their thoughts with the world.
The word "blog" comes from "Web log", because a blog consists of a signed and dated log
of individual postings. The topic of the blog can be anything from personal to professional.
A blogger is someone who biogs or writes content for a blog. A blogger can provide links to
other websites that he/she considers might interest the audience.
Blogging can be an interactive activity. Readers can add comments to a blogger's postings,
other persons can respond, and a conversation ensues. Blogs can provide up-to-date
news, technical information, political opinions, advice on investments, health tips, sports,
and much more.
Advantages
+ Enables you to pen down your thoughts on anything that interests you.
+ There is no time constraint in blogging. You are your own boss. You can practically work
while vacationing.
+ No office setup is required. You can work from anywhere in the world. All you need is your
computer and an Internet connection to post your blog.
+ It is easy to set up as one does not require technical knowledge and is quick to add and
update new posts. People can write comments on your blog which can prove to be
motivational for you.
+ Provides collaborative learning environment and helps learners develop social skills.
Disadvantages
+ Recognition of your talent can be a slow process, and initially, the traffic can be quite low
for your blog.
+ While writing, you need to be thoughtful and unbiased; otherwise, it may have negative
impact on the readers.
+ People can sometimes prove to be rude in their comments which may disappoint you.
+ You need to be very active and disciplined as a blogger so that people do not lose
interest.

NEWSGROUP
A Newsgroup is an online discussion forum where remotely connected users share and
discuss a particular topic. The users/subscribers can exchange text messages, images,
videos, and other digital media. People from different locations post articles here which all
the other subscribers of the newsgroup can read and respond to. The newsreader software
is used to read and post these messages. The newsreader is a program that runs on your
computer and connects you to a news server on the Internet.