2.

INTRODUCTION TO CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

2.1. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Macroscopically, the thermal conductivity k is defined, in terms of Fourier's heat-conduction law,

as

qx
k = ⎯⎯⎯⎯ (2.1)
− ∂T/∂x

This states that the thermal conductivity is the amount of heat conducted per unit time, per unit
area and per unit negative temperature gradient. The value of this transport property is closely
related to the physio-chemical structure of the matter. In general, metals are better heat
conductors than non-metallic solids, solid phases show higher thermal conductivities than their
respective liquid phases, and liquid phases show higher thermal conductivities than gaseous
phases (see Fig. 2.1 and Table 2.1).

Thermal conductivity is a temperature-dependent property, the dependence is largely

determined by the structure of matter and its atomic or molecular dynamics (see Figs. 2.2 to
2.4). For pure metallic solids, there is a general tendency for the thermal conductivity to
decrease with temperature, whereas for gases the reverse trend applies.

Fig. 2.1 Range of thermal conductivity for various states of matter at room
temperature and pressure (Incropera et al., 2007)

The variation of thermal conductivity with pressure depends on the structure of matter. For
instance, thermal conductivities of liquids may increase by a factor of 2 in the pressure range of
1.0 to 12,000 bar. At moderate pressures, thermal conductivities of gases are essentially
independent of pressure, but at high pressures they increase with the pressure.

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Table 2.1 Thermal conductivities of selected materials at 0°C (Holman, 1997)

Thermal conductivity
Material {W/m K}

Metallic solids:
Silver (pure) 410
Copper (pure) 385
Aluminium (pure) 202
Nickel (pure) 93
Iron (pure) 73
Carbon steel (1% C) 43
Lead (pure) 35
Chrome-nickel steel ( 18% Cr, 8% Ni) 16.3
Non-metallic solids:
Diamond 2300
Quartz (parallel to axis) 41.6
Magnesite 4.16
Marble 2.08 – 2.94
Ice 2.22
Sandstone 1.83
Pyrex glass 1.05
Window glass 0.78
Maple or oak 0.17
Sawdust 0.059
Glass wool 0.038
Liquids:
Mercury 8.21
Water 0.556
Ammonia 0.540
Lubricating oil (SAE 50) 0.147
Gases:
Hydrogen 0.175
Helium 0.141
Air 0.024
Water vapour (saturated) 0.0206
Carbon dioxide 0.0146
Chloroform 0.0066

2
Fig. 2.2 The temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of selected solids
(Incropera et al., 2007)

Fig. 2.3 Temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of selected

saturated liquids (Incropera et al., 2007)

3
Fig. 2.4 Temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of selected gases
at atmospheric pressure (Incropera et al., 2007)

4
2.2. THE DIFFERENTIAL HEAT-CONDUCTION EQUATION

A major objective in conduction analysis is to determine the temperature field (i.e. the
temperature distribution) in a medium resulting from conditions imposed on its boundaries.
Once this distribution is known, the local heat fluxes in the medium can be computed by
employing Fourier's law, i.e. Eq. (1.1).

In order to derive the differential equation describing the temperature distribution desired,
consider the infinitesimal control volume of dimensions dx, dy and dz oriented in the Cartesian
(x,y,z) co-ordinate system of Fig. 2.5. According to Fourier's law, the heat conducted to the
volume element, per unit time, through surface 1 in the x direction can be expressed as

. ∂T
Qx = − k ⎯ dy dz
∂x
.
The heat Qx+dx conducted. out of the control volume through the parallel surface 2 can be
obtained by expanding Qx in a Taylor series and retaining the first two terms only as a
reasonable approximation:

. . ∂ .
Qx+dx = Qx + ⎯ (Qx) dx
∂x

The net heat flow into the volume element by conduction in the x direction is therefore,

. . ∂ ∂T
Qx − Qx+dx = ⎯ (k ⎯ ) dx dy dz (2.2)
∂x ∂x

Fig. 2.5 The volume element for the derivation of the heat-conduction equation

Two additional equations, similar to Eq. (2.2), for the y and z directions can be written in the
same way:

. . ∂ ∂T
Qy − Qy+dy = ⎯ (k ⎯ ) dx dy dz
∂y ∂y

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and
. . ∂ ∂T
Qz − Qz+dz = ⎯ (k ⎯ ) dx dy dz
∂z ∂z

The sum of the net quantities of heat flow in the three co-ordinate directions is

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
[ ⎯ (k ⎯ ) + ⎯ (k ⎯ ) + ⎯ (k ⎯ )] dx dy dz (2.3)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

Heat can be generated within a medium by the virtue of its chemical or nuclear reactivity, or by
the dissipation of electric energy due to its electric resistivity. If per unit time and volume the
amount of heat qg is generated within the control element considered, then the rate of heat
generation in the volume element is

qg dx dy dz (2.4)

According to the principal of conservation of energy, the net heat flow into the control volume
due to conduction, i.e. the expression given by Eq. (2.3), and the heat generated within the
element, i.e. the expression given by Eq. (2.4), together serve to increase the internal energy of
the volume element. The rate of increase of the latter is

∂T
c ρ dx dy dz ⎯ (2.5)
∂t

where c and ρ are the specific heat and density, respectively, of the material and t is the time.

Thus the energy balance of the considered volume element takes the form

∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
c ρ ⎯ = ⎯ ( k ⎯ ) + ⎯ (k ⎯ ) + ⎯ (k ⎯ ) + q g (2.6)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

Equation (2.6) can be simplified for an isotropic, homogeneous material where the thermal
conductivity k can be considered constant. Thus

∂T k ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T qg qg

⎯ = ⎯⎯ [ ⎯⎯ + ⎯⎯ + ⎯⎯ ] + ⎯⎯ = α ∇2T + ⎯⎯ (2.7)
∂t ρc ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 ρc ρc

where α = k/ρ c is the thermal diffusivity, which is a property of the conducting material and ∇2
is the Laplacian operator

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = ⎯ + ⎯ + ⎯
2

∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

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By appropriate transformations of co-ordinates, Eq. (2.7) can be expressed in forms suited for
cylindrical or spherical systems. Thus, from Fig. 2.6, for

x = r cosθ , y = r sinθ and z = z

the differential heat-conduction equation will assume the following form in cylindrical co-
ordinates

∂T ∂2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂2T ∂2T qg

⎯ = α [ ⎯⎯ + ⎯ ⎯ + ⎯ ⎯⎯ + ⎯⎯ ] + ⎯⎯ (2.8)
∂t ∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2 ∂z2 ρc

Similarly, from Fig. 2.7, for

x = r sinψ cosφ , y = r sinψ sinφ and z = r cosψ

and the differential heat-conduction equation, in spherical co-ordinates, is

∂T 1 ∂2(r T) 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2 T qg
⎯ = α [ ⎯ ⎯⎯⎯ + ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯ (sinψ ⎯ ) + ⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯ ] + ⎯⎯ (2.9)
∂t r ∂r2 r2 sinψ ∂ψ ∂ψ r2 sin2ψ ∂φ2 ρc

Fig. 2.6 Cylindrical co-ordinate system

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 Fig. 2.7 Spherical co-ordinate system

REFERENCES

Holman, J. P. (1997). Heat transfer, 8th Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Incropera, F. P., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L. and Lavine, A. S. (2007). Fundamentals of heat and mass
transfer, 6th Edition. Wiley, New York.