ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture

Engineering Mechanics
CHAPTER TWO (FORCE SYSTEMS)

Instructor name : Kerima Hussen

January, 2023
Adama, Ethiopia
1
 Introduction
Defn: A force can be defined as the action of one body on another that changes/tends to
changes the state of the body acted on.
• Contact force:-Applied by direct mechanical contact of the acting body on the acted one
(Created
by push and pull).
Remote action (Body force):-Applied by remote action as in gravitational, electrical,
Magnetic, etc forces.
• The action of a force on a body can be divided as internal and external.
• Internal force is a force exerted by one part of a body on another part of the same body.
• External force is a force exerted on a body by some other body. An external force can
then be applied on a body as:
• Applied force
• Reactive force
• In Engineering mechanics, only external effects of forces, hence external forces are
considered
2.1.1. Force systems
• A system of forces can be grouped into different categories depending on their
arrangement in space.
Coplanar Forces:-are forces which act on the same plane. Depending on their
arrangement on the plane too, coplanar forces can further be divided as:
Coplanar collinear forces:-are coplanar forces acting on the same line-collinear
• Coplanar parallel forces:-Are forces which are on the same plane and parallel.
Coplanar concurrent forces:-Are forces on the same plane whose lines of action
intersect at a point.
• General coplanar forces:
• Non coplanar forces:-are forces which act on different planes. Again it can
further be broken as
• Non coplanar parallel forces:-is system of non planar forces but which are
parallel.
• Non-coplanar concurrent forces:-are non planar forces whose lines of action meet
at a point.
• General Non coplanar force:
Cont’d
 2.1.2. Composition and Resolution of Forces
• [Link]. Composition of forces
Composition of forces is the process of combining two or more forces in to
a single resultant force, which has the same external effect as that of the
applied system of forces.
In the previous chapter we defined force to be either sliding or fixed vector
depending on what type of bodies it acts-rigid or deformable bodies
respectively.
• In engineering mechanics we will be considering rigid bodies only; hence we
can treat force as sliding vector.
As discussed in the previous chapter, we have two laws of adding vectors:
• The parallelogram rule
• The triangle rule
 Cont’d
• The parallelogram rule
Consider the following planar force systems acting on the rigid body.
• To apply the parallelogram rule of vector addition, the vectors should be placed in such
a way that they form a parallelogram and they shouldn’t change their external effect.
• The principle of transmissibility states that ‘’ A force may be applied at any point on its
line of action, without altering the resultant effects of the force external to the rigid
body on which it acts’’.
• Thus, by the principle of Transmissibility we can move each force on its line to meet at
A with out affecting the external effect as shown in (b) above.
• Once the parallelogram is formed the resultant can be found as in the previous chapter
and its line of action will pass through A
 Cont’d
• The triangle rule
The triangle law can also be used to find the resultant of the above forces, but it needs
moving of the line of action of one of the forces.
• We can change the line of action of either force, but the start of the first vector should
coincide with the point of intersection of the line of action of the forces.
•
 Cont’d
• As can be seen in the (a) and (b) parts the first force in the combination starts at the
intersection of the line of action of the forces.
• In the (c) part, however, the first force F2 doesn’t start at the
intersection.
• Although the resulting resultant has the same magnitude and direction as the previous
ones, its line of action is different; hence its external effect is also different.
• [Link]. Resolution of forces
Resolution as defined earlier is the reverse of composition. It is the process of getting
the components of a vector along different axes.
I. Two Dimensional Force Systems
• 2.2. Rectangular components
Rectangular components of a force are the components of the force along the
rectangular coordinate axes.
• As α=90,
Fx = Fsin(90-θ)=Fcosθ
Fy =Fsinθ

• Algebraically, a force is represented by its scalar component along the

coordinate axes and a unit vector along that axis.
• Where Fx and Fy are the scalar components of F along the X and Y-axes, and i
and j are unit vectors along the x and y-axes respectively.
 Cont’d
When a force system
 Is not given in horizontal and vertical
directions
 Angel are not measured counterclockwise
from the X-axis
 The origin of coordinates is not on the line
of action of a force
Then:
 Determine the correct components of the force by using laws
of geometry to determine the angle it makes with the x-axis.
 Transfer the coordinate to the point of application
 Or make a secondary axis then make components of the force
to this axis then using these components make the horizontal
and vertical components of the original force.
 cont’d
The scalar components can be positive or negative, depending on
the quadrant into which F points.
 Examples

Example 1: the 500N force F is applied to the vertical pole as shown.

a. Write F in terms of the unit vectors I and J and identify both its vector and scalar
components
b. determine the scalar components of the force vector F along the x’ and y’-axes
c. Determine the scalar components of F along the x and y’-axes
Cont’d
2.3. Equivalent force systems (Moments and Couples)
• 2.3.1. Moment
In addition to its tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force
also tends to rotate the body about any axis which doesn’t intersect the line of action
of the force and which is not parallel to it.
• This tendency of a force to rotate a body about a given axis is known as the
moment, M, of the force.
• The moment of a force is also known as torque. The fig below shows a two-
dimensional body acted upon by a force F in its plane.
 Cont’d
• The axis of the force to rotate the body about the axis O-O normal to the plane of the
body –hence the moment is proportional both to the magnitude of the force and the
moment arm d, which is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action
of the force.
• Hence the magnitude of the moment is defined as:
M = F x d =Frsinα= rxF
• The moment will be a vector perpendicular to the plane of the body-parallel to the
axis o-o-and its sense depends on the direction in which the force tends to rotate the
body.
• The right hand rule can be used to identify this sense; curl your fingers in the
direction of the tendency to rotate, the thumb will point in the direction of the
moment vector.
• For a coplanar force system vector representation of the moment is unnecessary as it
can be represented as its tendency to rotate that plane-clockwise or counter
clockwise.
 Cont’d

• Sign convention
In representing moment by its tendency to rotate, it is a good practice to assign one
of the senses, clockwise or counter clockwise, a positive direction and the other
negative.
• Here we will be treating counter clockwise moment as positive moment and
clockwise moment as negative moment.
Note: - One can assign the positive sense to either the clockwise or
counterclockwise moments.
• Principle of moment: - One of the most important principles in mechanics is
Varignon’s theorem, or the principle of moment, which for coplanar forces states
“the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the
components of the force about the same point.
 Cont’d

• M = rԦ × R but R = P + Q
• therfore M = rԦ × P + Q = rԦ × P + rԦ × Q
• In case it is easier to find the moments of the components of a force about an axis
through a point, one can then easily determine the moment of the force about an axis
through that same point by applying the principle of moment.
 Examples
• Example 2: The 30N force 𝑷 is applied Perpendicular to the portion BC of the bent bar.
Determine the moment of 𝑷 about point B and about point A.
 Cont’d
Example 3 Calculate the magnitude of the moment about the base point O of
the 600 N force in different ways
2.3.2. Couples
• The moment produced by two equal and opposite and non-collinear forces is known as
couple. Consider the action of equal and opposite forces F and –F a distance d apart.
• These two forces can’t be combined in to a single force of the same effect on the body,
as their sum in every direction is zero. But the effect of the forces on the body isn’t
zero.
• The combined moment of the two forces about an axis normal to their plane and
passing through any point such as o in their plane is the couple, M.
• The magnitude of the couple
• M= F( a + d)- F (a)
= Fd
 Cont’d
• It can, therefore, be concluded that the moment of a couple is independent of the
moment center selected-hence a couple can be represented as free vector.
• NB. A couple is unchanged as long as the magnitude and direction of its vector
remains constant,
• i.e. a given couple will not be altered by changing the value of F and d as long as their
product remains the same.
• Likewise a couple is not affected by allowing the forces act in any one of parallel
planes.
2.4. Resolution of a force into a force and a couple
• The effect of a force on a body has been described in terms of the tendency to push
or pull the body in the direction of the force and to rotate the body about any axis
which doesn’t intersect the line of the force.
• The representation of this dual effect can be facilitated by replacing the given force
by an equal and parallel force at the new point sought and a couple to compensate
for the change in the moment of the forces.
• The resolution process can best be illustrated by the following figures.

• The given force F acting at A is replaced by an equal force at point B and the
anti clockwise couple M=F x d.
 Cont’d
• The transfer process can be seen from the middle figure and it involves the
following procedure:
• Apply two equal and apposite forces of F and -F at B where F is equal in magnitude
and parallel to the force acting at A.
• The forces applied at B will cancel each other - hence they will have no effect on the
body.
• The Forces F at A and –F at B form a couple; hence can be replaced by the counter
clockwise couple M=F X d
• The original force at A can be replaced by an equal and parallel force at B and a
corresponding couple as shown in the right figure.
Note: - The transformation described above can be performed in the reverse order.
• i.e. A force F acting at a point B and a couple M acting on the body can be combined
into a single resultant force.
• This is performed by moving F until its moment about B becomes equal to the
moment M of the couple to be excluded.
 Example
• Example 4 Compute the combined moment of the two 180-N forces about
(a) Point O
2.5. Resultants

• The resultant of a force system is the simplest force combination that can replace
the original forces without altering the external effect of the system on the rigid
body to which the forces are applied.
• The equilibrium of a body is the condition where the resultant if all forces that act
on it is zero.
• When the resultant is not zero, the acceleration of the body is described by
equating the force resultant to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the
body.
• Thus, the determination of the resultant is basic to both statics and dynamics.
The most common type of force system occurs when the forces all act in a single
plane (coplanar forces).
• The resultant can be computed by using the parallelogram rule or using analytical
methods.
Cont’d
Ways of determination of unit vector
Example 5
Answer
 Cont’d

Example 6: The two forces act on a bolt at A. Determine their

resultant.
Cont’d
Cont’d
 Cont’d
• Example 7 :Determine the resultant R of the three tension forces action on the eye
bolt. Find the magnitude of R and the angle 𝜃 which R makes with the positive x-
axis.
 Answer

• 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ −
• 𝑹𝑥 = σ 𝑭𝑥 = 20𝑠𝑖𝑛300 + 8𝑠𝑖𝑛450 = 15.66𝐾𝑁
• 𝑹𝑦 = σ 𝑭𝑦 = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠300 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠450 − 4 = 7.66𝐾𝑁

•𝑹= 𝑹𝑥 2 + 𝑹𝑦 2 = 17.43𝐾𝑁
−1 𝑅𝑦ൗ
•𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑥 = 26.10
Example :8
 cont’d
Example 9:Tension in cable BC is 725-N, determine the resultant of
the three forces exerted at point B of beam AB
Cont’d
 Cont’d
• Example 10 Determine and locate the resultant R of the two forces and one couple
acting on the I-beam.
 Answer

• 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ −
• 𝑅 = σ 𝑭𝑦 = 5 + −8 = −3𝐾𝑁
• 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑤 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
• 𝑀 = 𝑅𝑥 = 5 × 2 + −8 × 6 + 25
• −3𝑥 = −13
• 𝑥 = 4.33𝑚
Example 11
II. Three Dimensional Force Systems
• 2.6. Rectangular Components
Cont’d
Cont’d
 Cont’d
• In solving three-dimensional problems, one must usually find the x, y and z scalar
components of a given or unknown force. In most cases, the direction of a force is
described;
A/ by two points on the line of action of the force, or
B/ by two angles which orient the line of action
A. Using two points: If the coordinates of points A(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2, 𝑧2 ) on the
line of action of the force are known and the direction of the force is from A to B, the
force may be written as;

→
𝐹
= 𝐹𝑥 i+𝐹𝑦 j+𝐹𝑧 k
 Cont’d
(b)Specification by two angles
• First resolve F into horizontal and vertical components
• Then resolve the horizontal component Fxy into x- and y-
components
𝐹𝑥𝑦= 𝐹. 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф, 𝐹𝑧 = 𝐹. 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ф = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥𝑦 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = 𝐹. 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф. 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ, 𝐹𝑦= 𝐹𝑥𝑦 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝐹. 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ф. sin θ

• Rectangular components of a force → 𝐹

may be written
with the aid of dot or scalar product operation.
• The dot product of two vectors P and Q is defined as the
product of their magnitudes times the cosine of the angle
α between them. P.Q=PQcos α
 Cont’d
• If the unit vector n = αi + βj + γk and
• F = F(li + mj + nk), the projection of F in the n direction is given by:
• i/ As a scalar
• Fn =→
𝐹
. n = →
𝐹
(li + mj + nk) . (αi + βj + γk) =
• F(lα + mβ + nγ)
• ii/ As a vector
→ → → →
=( . )
𝐹𝑛 𝐹 𝑛 𝑛
• If θ is the angle between →
𝐹
and → → →
, .
𝑛 𝐹 𝑛
= Fn cosθ ,θ = cos-1(( → →
.
𝐹. 𝑛
)/ | →
𝐹
|)
• Fn cosθ= F cosθ where magnitude of n is 1
• It should be observed that the dot product relationship applies to non intersecting
vectors as well as to intersecting vectors.
 Example 12
• A force F with a magnitude of 100 N is applied at the origin O of the axes x-y-z as
shown. The line of action of F passes through a point A whose coordinates are 3 m, 4
m, and 5 m.
• Determine (a) the x, y, and z scalar components of F,
• (b) the projection Fxy of F on the x-y plane, and
• (c) the projection FOB of F along the line OB.
answer
Cont’d
Example 13
answer
Cont’d
 2.7. Moment and Couple
• In three dimensions, the determination of the perpendicular distance between a point
or line and the line of action of the force can be a tedious computation.
• The use of a vector approach using cross-product multiplication becomes
→
advantageous. The moment 𝑀𝑜 of →
𝐹
about an axis through O is given by;
 Cont’d
• If n is a unit vector in the →
λ
direction, the moment →
𝑀λ
of →
𝐹
about any axis λ through O is
expressed by;
→
• M = 𝑀𝑜 . n = (→
𝑟
X → →
𝐹 𝑛
. ) --- which is the scalar magnitude. Or

→
• M λ = (𝑀𝑜 . n) n = (→
𝑟
X
→ →
. ) n - vector expression for the moment of F about an axis λ
𝐹 𝑛
through O.
2.7.2. Couple
• If the vector r joins any point B on
the line of action of – →𝐹
to any point A
on the line of action of F.
The combined moment (couple) of
the two forces about O is;

However, rA -rB =r, so that all reference to the moment center O

disappears, and the moment of the couple becomes
 Cont’d
→ → →
• The moment of the couple, 𝑀 = 𝑟 X 𝐹 . It is the same about all points.
Thus,
- The moment of a couple is a free vector, whereas the moment of a force about a point
(which is also the moment about a defined axis through the point) is a sliding vector
whose direction is along the axis through the point.
- A couple tends to produce a pure rotation of the body about an axis normal to the plane
of the forces which constitute the couple.
2.7.3. Resolution of a force into a couple and a force.
 Cont’d
• The force →
𝐹
at point A is replaced by an equal force →
𝐹
at point B and the couple
→
• 𝑀
=→
𝑟
X →
𝐹
.
• Couple vectors obey all of the rules, which govern vector quantities
• 2.8. Resultants
-Any system of forces may be replaced by its resultant force → 𝑅
and the resultant
→
couple 𝑀 . For the system of forces F1, F2, F3, ----- acting on a rigid body, the
resultant force →𝑅
and the resultant couple →
𝑀
is given by;
 Cont’d

→ →
• ,
𝑟1 𝑟2
vectors from O to any point on the line of action of F1 and F2
respectively. In three dimensions, the magnitudes of the resultants and
their components are;
 CONT’D

The magnitude and direction of M depends on the

particular point selected. The magnitude and direction
of R, however, are the same no matter which point is
selected.
 .
2.8 Wrench Resultant
• When the resultant couple vector M is parallel to the resultant force R, the resultant is
called a wrench. By definition a wrench is positive if the couple and force vectors point
in the same direction and negative if they point in opposite directions.
 example on moment resultant (2-D)

1. Determine the resultant moment of the four forces acting on the rod shown in
Figure below about point O.
answer
 .
.2 Determine the moment of the force at point O in Figures below .
answer
. 3. Determine the moment of the force in Figure below about point
O.
4

Determine the moment of the force about point O. Neglect the

thickness of the member.
.5
Determine the resultant moment produced by the
forces about point O.
 Example on (3-D Moment and Couple)
1. The turnbuckle is tightened until the tension in cable AB is 2.4 kN. Determine the
moment about point O of the cable force acting on point A and the magnitude of this
moment.
Answer
2. As shown in Figure below, either rA or rB can be used to determine the moment
about point O.
answer
3
Two forces act on the rod shown in Figure below. Determine the
resultant moment they create about the flange at O. Express the result as
a Cartesian vector.
answer
4.
5. Determine the resultant of the force and couple system which acts on the
rectangular solid.
answer
6. Determine the resultant of the system of parallel forces which act on the plate.
Solve with a vector approach.
answer
 .example on wrench resultant
• Determine the wrench resultant of the three forces acting on the bracket. Calculate
the coordinates of the point P in the x-y plane through which the resultant force of
the wrench acts. Also find the magnitude of the couple M of the wrench.
answer
.
.

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