DTU CNCs Department of biology

DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

MODULE FOR THE COURSE: FOOD BIOTECHNOLOGY (Biol3132)

COURSE CREDIT: 2 (3 ECTS)

By

TOLOSSA DUGUMA

MARCH, 2016

DEBRE TABOR, ETHIOPIA

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UNIT ONE

THE DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF FOOD BIOTECHNOLOGY

Unit description: - This unit introduces you with the definition and scope of food
biotechnology. The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group discussion.
Students will be assessed by quiz and oral question.

Q. Define the term food biotechnology?

1.1. Definition
Biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms or their components to provide useful
products. This definition can include activities as diverse as making wine, beer, or baking
bread; composting organic materials; breeding plants or animals, producing crops and
livestock. For centuries, humans have been selecting, sowing, and harvesting seeds to
produce food products that will sustain them. In this present age, global food demand has
increased the need for improved crops. Biotechnology offers the needed technology to
produce higher crop yields, plants that are naturally protected from disease and insects, and
potentially more nutritious and better tasting foods. A general definition of biotechnology is
the use of a living organism or its products for the sake of human use. Today, biotechnology
involves the use of techniques which take genetic material from one organism and put it into
another, thus obtaining desired qualities or products.

Food biotechnology is defined as the application of biological techniques to food crops,

animals and microorganisms with the aim of improving the attributes, quantity, safety, ease
of processing and production economics of our food. It thus includes the traditional food
manufacturing processes used for baking bread, making wine, beer, food preservation,
making cheese and yoghurt indeed improving all crops animals and microorganisms for food.
The most recent application of biotechnology to food is Genetic Modification (GM), also
known as genetic engineering, genetic manipulation and gene technology and/or recombinant
DNA technology these words can be used interchangeably. The collective term "Genetically
Modified Organisms" or GMOs is used frequently in regulatory documents and in the
scientific literature to describe plants, animals and microorganisms which have had DNA
introduced into them by means other than by combination of an egg and a sperm or by natural
bacterial conjugation.

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1.2. Scopes of food biotechnology

Biotechnology helps us to;
 Increase yields (eg. beef, milk, poultry and crops)
 Produce herbicides and pesticide tolerance species
 Produce salt and drought tolerance plants
 Produce foods that have better taste and flavor
 Grow more food on less land
 Keep food safe to eat
 Produce new food varieties
 Produce plant with enhanced nutrients
 Produce disease resistant plants
 Extend shelf life of fruits and vegetables
 Extend shelf life of foods

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UNIT TWO

FERMENTATION TECHNOLOGY OF TRADITIONAL ETHIOPIAN FOODS AND

BEVERAGES

Unit description: - This unit deals with the Fermentation of Ethiopian traditional bevarage
such as; tela, tej, borde and kocho. The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group
discussion.

Q1. Define the term fermentation?

Q2. List the Ethiopian traditional beverages?

2.1. Fermentation of Ethiopian traditional bevarage such as; tela, tej, borde and
kocho.

Fermentation is a widely practiced ancient technology and fermented foods are an essential
part of diets in all regions of the world. Traditional fermented beverages are those that are
indigenous to a particular area and have been developed by the local people using age-old
techniques and locally available raw materials. Early man probably used short time fermented
beverages as a safe substitute for water, since the alcohol content is too low in the early
stages of fermentation to produce intoxication. Traditional recipes are handed down through
generations and are still used for food processing in many developing countries. However,
developing countries cannot continue to depend on historical methods of food processing.
Traditional fermentation processes and the potential for their modernization are increasingly
attracting the attention of scientists and policy makers as a vital part of food security
strategies and commercial use.

Ethiopia is one of the countries where a wide variety of traditional fermented beverages are
prepared and consumed. The various traditional fermented beverages consumed in Ethiopia
consist of both high alcoholic and low alcoholic beers. Some of the known Ethiopian
traditional fermented foods and beverages are injera, dabo, ambasha, kocho, bulla, ergo,
siljo, tella, teji, areki, borde, cheka, shamita, korefe, keribo, bukire, kineto and merissa. Most
of the customs and rituals involving the Ethiopian traditional fermented foods and beverages
are still prevailing today in urban areas, village communities and rural households. These
foods are relatively cheap to prepare and are therefore important alternatives for low-income
consumers who cannot afford imported or industrially processed foods and beverages.

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Tella (2.0 – 6.0% alcohol) is made of different cereals. Maize and corn are the most popular,
but in some areas barley, millet or sorghum can be used. The way of preparing tella differs as
between the ethnic groups and depends on tradition and the economic situation. The clay
container (insera) is washed with grawa and water several times and after that smoked with
wood from olive tree (weyra), for about 10 minutes, in order to get it as clean as possible.
Germinated grains of barley, corn or wheat (bekel) are dried and milled. For making malt
(bekel), the grains are moistened in water and the moist grains are placed between fresh
leaves, left to germinate for 3-5 days and after that dried. Hops (gesho) is dried in the sun and
pounded. The leaves are separated from the stems, which need a longer time to dry. The
ground gesho leaves are placed in a clay container with water and left to ferment for 2-3 days.

Some of the grains intended for tella preparation are toasted, milled and then mixed with
water and baked on the roasting pan (mitad). This kita is broken into small pieces, part of the
milled bekel and the pounded gesho stems are added to the water mixture and allowed to
ferment for 2-3 days. The rest of the flour is toasted on the mitad, sprinkled with water and
toasted until dark brown. This mixture enkuro, the rest of the germinated grains (bekel), some
gesho and water are added to the container. The mixture is kept covered overnight, after
which more water is added and the container is kept sealed for 5-7 days, when the beverage is
ready. Tella can be kept for 10-12 days. High-quality tella is made with a relatively small
quantity of water.

Wine (tejj) is a beverage mainly used for great feasts, such as weddings and the breaking of
fasts. Its alcohol content is 6.0 -9.0 %). The honey is mixed with water and kept covered for 3
days. The wax and foreign particles are removed by sieving and the mixture is put in a clean
clay container. Gesho stems are heated on the mitad and added to the mixture, which is left to
ferment in a closed container for 5-6 days. The tejj is filtered through a cotton cloth and put
in a clean container and left to ferment. The tejj can be served fresh and is very sweet. The
longer it is allowed to ferment, the more sugar will be used for the fermentation process, with
an increase in the alcohol content as a result. The slightly sweet tejj looks nice and tastes
good. One proverb says "Tejj has no spots and a poor man has no friends". Tejj can be stored
for 5-6 months if kept in sealed bottles.

Borde: is a traditional fermented beverage made from maize, barley or wheat and their malts.
Its production is based on natural fermentation of the ingredients. It is an opaque,
effervescent light brown beverage consumed while at an active stage of fermentation. It is a

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very popular meal replacement consumed by both children and adults in southern Ethiopia
and some other parts of the country. Maize is the most common ingredient for the preparation
of borde. The malt is usually made of a mixture of cereals. Cereal for malting is carefully
cleaned, rinsed in water several times and soaked in clean water until malting. The malt is
then sun-dried and a portion is milled into flour for immediate use.

Kocho fermentation
Enset is the main source of food in the densely populated areas of central and south-western
Ethiopia. The plant does not produce edible fruit, but its corm and pseudo-stem are scraped to
separate the starchy pulp from the fiber and the pulp is made to ferment in earthen pits to
form kotcho. The job starts with the digging of a pit around the homestead. The inner part of
the pit is lined with enset leaves to collect and prevent the juicy part from leaking into the
ground. Pseudostem removed from the enset plant is tightly secured on a wooden pole and
using a bamboo scraper the woman scrapes the fleshy part of the pseudostem down towards
the pit. After a short while the juicy part sediments into a moist sticky product known as
bulla. The clear solution over the bulla sediment is discarded. The remaining thick white
bulla is thinly spread for dehydration and a handful is then wrapped in fresh enset leaves
tightly tied with fiber and allowed to ferment. The fermenting bulla is protected from air and
light to avoid undesirable color change as white bulla has a higher market value. The grated
pieces of the corm are mixed with the fleshy scrapped pseudostem and buried in the pit.

2.2. Dough leavening

Flour is a fine powder commonly made from wheat, but also from maize, rye, barley and rice.
Wheat flour is the main ingredient in most types of breads and pastries. When wheat flour is
mixed with water, a complex protein called gluten is formed. The gluten development is
what gives wheat dough an elastic structure that allows it to be worked in a variety of ways
and which allows the retention of gas bubbles in an intact structure, resulting in a sponge-like
texture to the final product. Many types of bread are leavened with yeast. The yeast used for
leavening bread is Saccharomyces cerevisae. When yeast is used for making bread, it is
mixed with flour, salt and warm water. The dough is kneaded until it is smooth and then left
to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. The dough is then shaped into loaves, left to
rise until it is the correct size and then baked to produce the final product. S. cerevisiae plays
an important role as a leavening agent in bread making. It does not only induce and increase
the volume of dough through gas incorporation but helps creating the desired flavour and
texture.

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UNIT THREE

BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE PRODUCTION OF BEER

Unit description: - This unit deals about the roles of Biotechnology in the production of
beer. The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group discussion.

3.1. Q1. Explain the Process of beer production?

3.1. Process of beer production

Beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage in this world. Beer is manufactured by the
fermentation of sugars which are derived from starch and usually comprises of wheat, malt,
corn, rice and barley. The starch molecules are then broken down by the enzymes present
which leads to production of sugary liquid know as wort. This liquid is then mixed with
flavoured hops, which acts as a natural preservative. Along with the above ingredients, herbs
and fruits may be added. Yeast is then used to cause fermentation which leads to production
of alcohol. This process of production of beer is called Brewing. Fermentation is the process
by which glucose is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide and is expressed chemically as:
C6H12O6 + 2PO3 4 + 2ADP → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP. Brewing process consists of seven
main steps: Mashing, Lautering, Boiling, Fermentation, Conditioning, Filtering and
Packaging.
Mashing is the process where all the ingredients (grains) are mixed with water and heated to
a pre-specified temperature. The temperature should be conducive for the enzymes so that it
breaks down the starch into sugars such as maltose.
Lautering is the process of separating the wort extracts from the spent grain after the
mashing. This comprises of two stages: First, extraction of wort in an undiluted state and
secondly, Sparging, in which the wort extract is rinsed off with hot water. The wort is then
filtered in a mash filter.
Boiling is the stage where the filtered wort extracts are heated to a certain temperature to
maintain the sterility which later helps in preventing the extract from infections. During this
stage, hops are added which in turn add flavor and aroma to the brew. The boiling of the
extract also helps in coagulation of proteins present in the wort and in lowering its pH. This
stage lasts for 50 – 120 minutes depending on the intensity, hop addition schedule, and
volume of the wort the brewer expects to evaporate. The wort is later cooled down to 20
degree Celsius before moving on to fermentation stage.

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Fermentation commences as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. Yeast acts as a
catalyst in metabolizing the malt into alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is the stage where the
product can be first called as Beer.
Conditioning is the stage where the beer is cooled down to freezing temperature as this
temperature is conducive for settling of the yeast and also causes proteins to coagulate.
Phenolic compounds which are bad in taste become insoluble in chilled beer and thereby
smoothens the beer’s flavour.
Filtering is the process of stabilizing the beer flavour and filters out any remaining hops,
grain particles and yeast in the beer.
Packaging is the process of filling the beer into the containers such as bottles, aluminium
cans and kegs. It is also filled into large containers for higher volume customers.

3.2. Microorganisms used in beer fermentation

Yeast
Genus of Saccharomyces has always been involved in brewing since ancient times, but
through the vast majority of the brewing history our ancestors had no idea that living cells
were the responsible entities for fermentation. Although Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the
first to see yeast cells through a microscope in 1680, it was not before the studies by Louis
Pasteur that conversion of wort into beer was awarded to living cells. Pasteur made careful
microscopic examination of beer fermentations and observed the growth of brewing yeast
cells and demonstrated that these were responsible for fermentation. Saccharomyces
cerevisae is the most used yeast species.

3.3. Strain improvement

Strain improvement is an essential part of process development for fermentation products.
Developed strains can reduce the costs with increased productivity and can possess some
specialized desirable characteristics. Such improved strains can be achieved by inducing
genetic variation in the natural strain and subsequent screening. Thus a major effort of
industrial research in producing enzymes is directed towards the screening programs.
Mutation is the primary source of all genetic variation and has been used extensively in
industrial improvement of enzyme production. The use of mutation and selection to improve
the productivity of cultures has been strongly established for over fifty years and is still
recognized as a valuable tool for strain improvement. The recent technique used for strain
improvement is through recombinant DNA technology.

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UNIT FOUR
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN DAIRY INDUSTRY

Unit description: - This unit deals about the roles of Biotechnology in dairy industry
(Production of yoghurt, cheese and others, Microorganisms of importance in dairy industry
and strain improvement). The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group
discussion.

Q1. Explain the Process of Yogurt and cheese production?

4.1. Production of yoghurt, cheese and others

Yogurt is a fermented milk product with a custard-like consistency which differentiates it
from other fermented milk products. Lactic acid producing bacteria, Lactobacillus bulgaricus
and Streptococcus thermophilus converts milk into yogurt. Yogurt is more nutritious than
many other fermented milk products because it contains a high level of milk solids in
addition to nutrients developed during the fermentation process.

Cheese is made in almost every country of the world and there exist more than 2000
varieties. Despite the large number of varieties cheese may be classified into different groups,
i.e. ripened and un ripened cheese, cheese with low or high fat content and cheese with soft or
hard consistency. Unprocessed milk held at high ambient temperatures has a shelf-life from
2–3 hours up to 24 hours. Cheese, however has a shelf-life from 4–5 days up to five years
depending on the variety. Cheese therefore provides an ideal vehicle for preserving the
valuable nutrients in milk and making them available throughout the year. Cheese is an
excellent source of protein, fat and minerals such as calcium, iron and phosphorus, vitamins
and essential amino acids and therefore is an important food in the diet of both young and old
people.

A cheese making recipe is a guide for the manufacture of a specific variety of cheese and
contains steps which, when followed will result in a cheese of good quality. Due to variations
in the chemical and microbiological quality of milk and cheese making ingredients such as
starter, rennet and salt it is not always possible to produce the best quality cheese.

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Ingredients for cheese making

Milk: Good quality milk from the cow, sheep, goat etc is required. Knowledge of its
chemical composition and bacteriological quality is desirable if cheese of consistent quality is
to be made.
Starter: Certain cheese varieties require starters (pure cultures of lactic acid bacteria)
containing organisms with specific functions, e.g. flavour development. The recipe will
indicate the type and quantity of starter to be used and temperature conditions.
Colour: The recipe and the market will determine if colouring matter should be used.
Occasionally it is required to bleach the original colour of the milk and to whiten the curd.
Chemicals: Chemicals such as calcium chloride and sodium nitrate are recommended in
recipes for some varieties of cheese to improve curd quality and prevent the growth of
organisms which may cause problems during the ripening or maturing of the cheese.
Coagulant: Rennet is the usual coagulant used but the juice extract of some fruits and plants,
e.g. lemons may be used for some cheese varieties.
Salt: Salt (sodium chloride) may be added to some varieties of cheese. Salt may be added
directly to the milk or curd pieces; it may be rubbed into the finished cheese or the cheese
may be immersed in a brine solution. The addition of salt retards the growth of lactic
organisms and slows down acid production. Salt also retards or prevents the growth of
bacteria which may cause flavour and other defects in the cheese.

4.2. Microorganisms of importance in dairy industry

Species of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) belong to numerous genus under the family of Lacto-
bacillaceae involved in dairy industry. Example: Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus. They represent as potential microorganisms and have been widely applied in
food fermentation worldwide due to their well known status as generally recognized as safe
microorganisms. They are also recognised for their fermentative ability and thus enhancing
food safety, improving organo-leptic attributes, enriching nutrients and increasing health
benefits. Due to the characteristics of milk that is highly perishable, the main purpose of milk
fermentation using LAB is to prolong its shelf-life as well as to preserve the nutritious
component of milk. It is also recognised that fermentation of milk using LAB will
undoubtedly produce good quality of products with highly appreciated organoleptic
attributes.

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4.3. Strain improvement

Strain improvement is an essential part of process development for fermentation products.

Developed strains can reduce the costs with increased productivity and can possess some
specialized desirable characteristics. Such improved strains can be achieved by inducing
genetic variation in the natural strain and subsequent screening. Thus a major effort of
industrial research in producing enzymes is directed towards the screening programs.
Mutation is the primary source of all genetic variation and has been used extensively in
industrial improvement of enzyme production.

Depending on the system, it may be desirable to isolate strains: which shows rapid growth,
Genetic stability, non-toxic to humans, which has large cell size, for easy removal from the
culture fluid, which require shorter fermentation times, which exhibit decreased foaming
during fermentation, with tolerance to high concentrations of carbon or nitrogen sources,
increased thermo stability, altered substrate range, altered pH range, etc. The techniques
involved in strain improvement include:
* Mutations
* Recombination (Protoplast fusion)
* Recombinant DNA technology

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UNIT FIVE
BIOTECHNOLOGY OF BAKING INDUSTRY

Unit description: - This unit deals about the roles of Biotechnology in baking industry
(Leavening of dough, Microorganisms used to leaven dough and strain improvement). The
unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group discussion.

Q1. Explain the Process of Yogurt and cheese production?

5.1. Leavening of dough

During the fermentation of the dough, the metabolic products of LAB improve the
organoleptic and technological properties of bread as well as their shelf life, nutritional value
and healthy aspect. Leavening agents are substance causing expansion of dough and batters
by the release of gases within such mixtures, producing baked products with porous structure.
Such agents include air, steam, yeast, baking powder, and baking soda. Leavening may be
achieved by the process of fermentation, which releases carbon dioxide gas. Bakers’ yeast,
composed of living cells of the yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is available as a
pressed cake and in a powdered form. When added to doughs, yeast initiates fermentation by
acting upon certain sugars contributed by other dough ingredients, releasing both carbon
dioxide and substances that affect the flavour and aroma of the baked product. Yeast-
leavened products include most types of breads.

Chemical leavening agents also produce expansion by the release of carbon dioxide. Modern
baking powders are combinations of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and dry acids or acid
salts, usually with starch added for stability in storage. Single-acting baking powders,
containing tartaric acid or cream of tartar, release carbon dioxide at room temperature, and
mixtures in which they are used must be baked immediately to avoid loss of most of the gas.
Slow-acting baking powders, containing phosphates, release part of their gas at room
temperature and part when heated. Double-acting baking powder, the most widely used type,
contains sodium aluminium sulphate and calcium acid phosphate and releases a small amount
of gas when mixed and the balance when heated. Leavening agents play a huge role in
baking. Without them, we would be left with dense, flat, and low-volume baked goods.

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5.2. Microorganisms used to leaven dough

Many micro organisms mainly lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast strain Saccharomyces
cerevisiae are used to leaven dough for baking purpose by allowing fermentation to occur.

5.3. Strain improvement

Microorganisms can generate new genetic characters (‘genotypes’) by two means: mutation
and genetic recombination. In mutation, a gene is modified either un intentially (‘spontaneous
mutation’) or intentially (‘induced mutation’). Although the change is usually detrimental and
eliminated by selection, some mutations are beneficial to the microorganism. Even if it is not
beneficial to the organism, but beneficial to humans, the mutation can be detected by
screening and can be preserved indefinitely. This is indeed what the fermentation
microbiologists did in the strain development programs that led to the great expansion of the
fermentation industry in the second half of the twentieth century.

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UNIT SIX

SECONDARY METABOLITES FOR FOOD INDUSTRY

Unit description: - This unit deals about secondary metabolites for food industry (production
of Secondary metabolites from plant cell culture and microorganism, Use of secondary
metabolites as food additives, Improvement of strains for increased production of secondary
metabolites and downstream processing). The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and
group discussion.

Q1. Define Secondary metabolites?

6.1. Secondary metabolites from plant cell culture

Secondary metabolites are organic molecules that are not involved in the normal growth and
development of an organism. While primary metabolites have a key role in survive of the
species, playing an active function in the photosynthesis and respiration, absence of
secondary metabolites does not result in immediate death, but rather in long-term impairment
of the organism’s survivability, often playing an important role in plant defence. These
compounds are an extremely diverse group of natural products synthesized by plants, fungi,
bacteria, algae, and animals. Most of secondary metabolites are terpenes (such as plant
volatiles, cardiac glycosides, carotenoids and sterols), phenolic (such as phenolic acids,
coumarins, lignans, stilbenes, flavonoids, tannins and lignin) and nitrogen containing
compounds (such as alkaloids and glucosinolates).

6.2. Secondary metabolites from microorganisms

Microbial secondary metabolites include antibiotics, pigments, toxins, effectors of ecological
competition and symbiosis, pheromones, enzyme inhibitors, immune-modulating agents,
receptor antagonists and agonists, pesticides, antitumor agents and growth promoters of
animals and plants. They have a major effect on the health, nutrition and economics of our
society. They often have unusual structures and their formation is regulated by nutrients,
growth rate, feedback control, enzyme inactivation and enzyme induction. Regulation is
influenced by unique low molecular mass compounds, tRNA, sigma factors and some gene
products. The syntheses of secondary metabolism are often coded by clustered genes on
chromosomal DNA and infrequently on plasmid DNA.

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6.3. Use of secondary metabolites as food additives

In its broadest sense, a food additive is any substance added to food. The definition includes
any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or
storage of food. Food additives are also substances added to food to preserve flavour or
enhance its taste and appearance. Some additives have been used for centuries; for example,
preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon, preserving sweets or using
sulfur dioxide as in some wines. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the
20th century, many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.
Food additives may be classified as: Antimicrobial agents, Antioxidants, Artificial colours,
artificial flavours and flavour enhancers, Bleaching agents, Chelating agents and Nutrient
additives.

6.4. Improvement of strains for increased production of secondary metabolites

Improvement of microbial strains for the overproduction of industrial products has been the
hallmark of all commercial fermentation processes. Conventionally, strain improvement has
been achieved through mutation, selection, or genetic recombination. Overproduction of
primary or secondary metabolites is a complex process, and successful development of
improved strains requires knowledge of physiology, pathway regulation and control and the
design of creative screening procedures. In addition, it requires mastery of the fermentation
process for each new strain, as well as engineering for media-optimization and the fine-tuning
of process conditions.

6.5. Downstream processing

Downstream processing refers to the isolation and purification of a biotechnologically formed
product to a state suitable for the intended use. Downstream processing will primarily be
concerned with initial separation of the bioreactor broth into a liquid phase and a solid phase,
and subsequent concentration and purification of the product. It will depend largely on the
chemical and physical properties of the products. Initial pre-treatment or conditioning of the
broth can involve flocculation of cells or solids or the breakdown of cells to release
intracellular products such as enzymes. Separation of components in the liquid phase of the
broth can involve settling, filtration, centrifugation or electro-kinetic separation, with the final
degree of processing dependent on the final use of the products. A wide range of methods are
currently used and include evaporation and distillation, precipitation, membrane filtration,
adsorption, affinity, ion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatography.

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UNIT SEVEN

IMPROVING FOOD QUALITY THROUGH AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

APPROACH

Unit description: - This unit emphasis on improving food quality through agricultural
biotechnology (Improving the nutritional quality of cereal crops, Elimination of allergy
causing substances, Improved baking quality, Availability of minerals and Single cell protein
production). The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group discussion.

Q1. Define food quality?

7.1. Improving the nutritional quality of cereal crops

Genetically modified foods are produced using so-called recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid
(rDNA) techniques to produce desired changes in the characteristics in plants, animals, and
food-related microorganisms (such as yeasts and enzymes). Recombinant DNA techniques
are used today to give genetically modified crops greater nutrient content, greater resistance
to damage by herbicides and pesticides, as well as crop-damaging diseases faster ripening or
delayed softening, and less “allergenicity.” Chemical engineers work with food scientists and
biotechnologists to advance the techniques needed to effectively transfer genetic materials
from one organism to another.

The first agricultural product generated using rDNA in the U.S. was introduced in the 1990s
with a plant producing tomatoes with a longer shelf life, which was achieved by genetically
modifying the plant to produce less of the enzyme that causes tomatoes to ripen and soften
rapidly. Since then, other rDNA-derived crops for fruits, root and leaf vegetables, and grains
with desired traits have been introduced. Many consider the ability to produce genetically
modified foods the most promising strategy available today for increasing global food
production by reducing crop losses and increasing the nutritional value of treated crops.

7.2. Elimination of allergy causing substances

Food allergies occur when your immune system reacts to a harmless food protein, due to the
creation of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies which are specific for that particular protein.
When the protein is consumed, the antibodies recognise the protein and link to it, causing the
release of substances such as histamine, which will result in allergic symptoms. An

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immediate reaction (within two hours of eating the food), usually involves IgE antibodies,
and the development of classic symptoms such as an itchy rash, swelling and in some cases
vomiting and diarrhoea. Symptoms can vary in severity and can in the worst case lead to life
threatening problems including difficulty in breathing and collapse, also known as
anaphylaxis. When the symptoms are more delayed (appears after two hours and up to a
couple of days) the reaction does not usually involve the production of IgE antibodies against
a particular food, but a different type of immune reaction involving other cells of the immune
system. These types of reactions are most frequently gastrointestinal (vomiting, diarrhoea,
constipation) and/or skin reactions and are known as non- IgE mediated food allergies. The
most common foods that cause problems in children are eggs, milk, Peanuts and tree nuts.
Peanuts and tree nuts are the leading causes of the potentially deadly food allergy reaction
called anaphylaxis. Once a food allergy is diagnosed, the only proven therapy is to avoid the
offending food. A diet or eating plan to eliminate the offending food must be developed
carefully. Each elimination diet must take into account the individual’s ability to tolerate the
offending food,

7.3. Improved baking quality

Some of the flour treatment enzymes that used in effecting flour quality are; Alpha Amylases,
Hemycellulases , Lipases , Glucose Oxidases and Proteases. Amylases were the first
enzymes to be added to bread dough. Its use was maximising the fermentation process to
obtain an even crumb structure and a high loaf volume. Alpha amylases are also added to
flour to generate fermentable sugar for yeast activity and improves crust colour. Amylases
action on damaged starch granules produces dextrins and oligosaccharides, reducing their
ability to immobilize water. This increases dough mobility (lowers consistency). Xylanases,
enhance dough quality characteristics like stability, flexibility, extensibility, coherency by
modifying the elasticity of gluten network which results in better crumb structure,
improvement of crumb porosity, firmness, texture profile, higher moisture retention and
extend shelf life of the bread. A reinforcement of strengthening of wheat dough and
improvement of bread quality can be obtained with the addition of glucose oxidase. Proteases
reduce the strength of the flour protein, therefore reducing mixing time and elasticity of the
dough and increasing the extensibility and softness of the dough. The protease allows for
easier working of the dough into thin sheets without shrink back or wrinkling on the band
oven.

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7.4. Availability of minerals

Minerals are required by all humans in small amounts. Minerals come from the earth and
therefore are available for us in a variety of plant foods, animal foods, and even in the water
we drink. Minerals do not provide our bodies with calories but are an important part of our
diet. They help our body carry out functions that are necessary to have a healthy and long
life. There are two different categories of minerals; major minerals and trace minerals. We
need major minerals in greater quantities than trace minerals, but both types of minerals are
equally important. Major minerals include calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, potassium, and
sodium. Trace minerals include copper, iodine, iron, manganese, and zinc.

7.5. Single cell protein production

One of the biggest problems facing the world today is population growth, especially in
developing nations. Conventional agriculture may not be able to provide sufficient supply of
food and, in particular, protein. Today, new agricultural practices are widespread, high-
protein cereals have been developed the cultivation of soybeans and groundnuts is ever
expanding, and so on. The use of microbes as protein producers has also gained wide
experimental success. This field of study has become known as single-cell protein production
(SCP) and reflects the fact that most microorganisms used as producers grow as single or
filamentous individuals rather than as complex multicellular organisms such as plants or
animals.

There are many reasons microbes are the prime candidate for SCP production. Some of the
reasons include: (1) microorganisms can grow at remarkably rapid rates under optimum
conditions (some microbes can double their mass every 0.5 to 1 hour); (2) microorganisms
are more easily modified genetically than plants and animals (they are more amenable to
large-scale screening programs to select for higher growth rate, improved amino acid content,
etc., and can be more easily subjected to gene transfer technology); (3) microorganisms have
relatively high protein content, and the nutritional value of the protein is good; (4)
microorganisms can be grown in vast numbers in relatively small continuous fermentation
processes using a relatively small land area and are also independent of climate; and (5)
microorganisms can grow on a wide range of raw materials, in particular low value wastes,
and can also use plant-derived cellulose.

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UNIT EIGHT

FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

Unit description: - This unit emphasis on food preservation techniques (smoking, drying,
radiation, pasteurisation and Addition of sugar and other chemicals). The unit will be delivered
by interactive lecture and group discussion.

Q1. Define food preservation and techniques?

Preservation of Food is the process of treating and handling food to stop or greatly slow
down spoilage caused or accelerated by micro-organisms. Some methods, however, use
benign bacteria, yeasts or fungi to add specific qualities and to preserve food. Maintaining or
creating nutritional value, texture and flavour is important in preserving its value as food.
This is culturally dependent, as what qualifies as food fit for humans in one culture may not
qualify in another culture. Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria,
fungi, and other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause
rancidity. It also includes processes used to inhibit natural ageing and discolouration that can
occur during food preparation

8.1. Smoking
Where there’s smoke, there’s well-flavoured meat and poultry. Using a smoker is one method
of imparting natural smoke flavour to large cuts of meat, whole poultry, and turkey breasts.
This slow cooking technique keeps them tender, too. Smoking is slowly cooking food
indirectly over a fire. This can be done by using a “smoker,” which is an out-door cooker
especially designed for this purpose. A covered grill can also be used for smoking food by
placing a drip pan of water beneath the meat on the grill.

8.2. Addition of sugar and other chemicals

Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches,
apricots, plums or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the
point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for
the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica and ginger. A modification of this process
produces glace fruit such as glace cherries where the fruit is preserved in sugar but is then
extracted from the syrup and sold, the preservation being maintained by the sugar content of

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the fruit and the superficial coating of syrup. The use of sugar is often combined with alcohol
for preservation of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other spirits
8.3. Drying
Drying is One of the oldest methods of food preservation is by drying, which reduces water
activity sufficiently to prevent or delay bacterial growth. Drying also reduces weight.
8.4. Radiation
Radiation refers to reduction of the number of viable specific non-spore forming bacterial
pathogens such as Salmonella and is equivalent to pasteurization of milk. The foods such as
fresh poultry, cod and red fish, and spices and condiments are preserved by irradiating at
these levels. Irradiation can be used to destroy or inactivate organisms that cause spoilage and
decomposition and extend the shelf life of foods. Irradiation of food is the exposure of food
to ionizing radiation. The treatment has a range of effects, including killing of bacteria, molds
and insect pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses including
sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called ‘cold
pasteurisation’, as the product is not heated. Irradiation is not effective against viruses or
prions; it cannot eliminate toxins already formed by microorganisms, and is only useful for
food of high initial quality.

8.5. Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills part but not all the microorganisms present and
usually involves the application of temperatures below 100°C. The heating may be by means
of steam, hot water, dry heat, or electric currents and the products are cooled promptly after
the heat treatment. Pasteurization may be achieved by either employing the high-temperature-
short-time method or low-temperature-long-time method. Pasteurization is used to:
1. Eliminate a specific pathogen or pathogens associated with a product as with milk, bulk
liquid egg, ice cream mix, cream etc.
2. Eliminate a large proportion of potential spoilage organisms as in beers, fruit juices,
pickles and sauces
3. Kill competing organisms allowing a desired fermentation by starter cultures as in cheese
making
4. Extend further shelf-life by using other preservative methods like aseptic packaging and
cooling and
5. Avoid the rigorous heat treatments that might harm the physico-chemical organoleptic and
nutritional quality of the product.

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UNIT NINE

IMPROVING THE INTESTINAL MICOFLORA

Unit description: This unit emphasis on improving the intestinal micoflora ( Probiotics,
Prebiotics and synbiotics). The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group
discussion.

Q1. Define Probiotics, Prebiotics and synbiotics?

9.1. Probiotics
The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract accommodates much many microorganisms (especially
bacteria). Theintestine contains ten times as many microbial cells as there are human cells in
the whole body. Some bacteria resident in the gut can cause serious gastrointestinal disorders,
e.g. Escherichia coli and Clostridium difficile. The majority of GI microorganisms are
harmless or beneficial, helping to prevent infections, supporting a healthy gut lining and
especially promoting normal immune development.

Probiotics can be considered as live microorganisms that have a beneficial effect on human
and animal health by influencing qualitatively and quantitatively the composition and/or
metabolic activity of the microbial flora of the GI tract. Of special current interest is the
influence on the immune status. It is considered that they may function by repairing a
deficiency, reconstituting the normal GI tract microflora that would exist under natural
conditions but that may have become damaged by various factors such as diet, medication,
stress or other environmental influences.

Probiotics can be produced as powders, tablets, capsules or liquid suspensions. They are
extensively used in certain animal/poultry feeds with definite productivity yield gains.
Recently, there has been a major increase in sales of so-called bio-yoghurts that use specific
live intestinal bacteria, mostly strains of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, as starter
cultures.

The majority of probiotic microorganisms belong to the genera Lactobacillus and

Bifidobacterium. However, other bacteria and some yeast may have probiotic properties as
well. Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria are Grampositive lactic acid-producing bacteria that
constitute a major part of the normal intestinal microflora in animals and humans.

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9.2. Prebiotics
Dietary supplements, such as lactulose, inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides are compounds
that have beneficial stimulatory effects on probiotic microbial growth are termed prebiotics.
A prebiotic is a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the
composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host
well being and health. prebiotics must fulfil the following criteria:
• Non-digestibility: Resistance to gastric acid, enzymatic digestion and intestinal absorption
was demonstrated.
• Fermentation by the intestinal microbiota
• Selective stimulation of growth and activity of intestinal bacteria
9.3. Synbiotics
Very often prebiotics are added to probiotic foods, whereby their concentration in the product
is typically below 10%. For this combination, the term “synbiotic” has been coined. For
example, two European companies from France and the Netherlands, respectively, launched
combinations of L. acidophilus strains with fructooligosaccharides or inulin, respectively, in
the market, claiming to lower blood cholesterol. Some scientists defined synbiotics as
mixtures of probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the
survival and implantation of live microbial dietary supplements in the gastrointestinal tract of
the host.

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UNIT TEN

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING GENETICALLY

ENGINEERED FOODS

Unit description: This unit emphasis on social and ethical considerations regarding
genetically engineered foods. The unit will be delivered by interactive lecture and group
discussion

Q1. What are ethical considerations regarding genetically engineered foods?

A common and useful separation of ethical concerns is into intrinsic concerns about the plant
or gene itself and extrinsic concerns because of consequences. The latter type of concern
includes health and environmental concerns that can be more readily answered by scientific
research and monitoring, as well as socio-economic concerns which are more political in
nature. Public acceptance of food depends upon intrinsic concerns and culture.

There are two basic types of health effect on humans. The first type focuses on toxic
substances, pleiotropic or allergic effects in an individual, while the second involve the
spread of a gene transfer vector between consumers. Some food like fruits and vegetables
include intact DNA when consumed, especially when fresh. Other food is consumed after
cooking, and other only reaches the consumers after food processing which breaks down the
DNA.

People express a variety of allergies to food components, and studies show that allergic
components can be transferred by genetic engineering. These concerns also apply to animal
food, both because of animal welfare and disease concerns and because of downstream
effects upon humans of consumption of animals. Food is not the only product, for example
increasing the sulfur containing amino acids in clover for sheep food is designed to increase
wool production.

UK report (by the Committee on the Ethics of Genetic Modification and Food Use, 1993)
identified some of the main ethical concerns relating to the food use of certain transgenic
organisms:

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1. Transfer of human genes to food animals (e.g. transfer of the human gene for Factor IX, a
protein involved in blood clotting, into sheep)
2. Transfer of genes from animals whose flesh is forbidden for use as food by certain
religious groups to animals that they normally eat (e.g. pig genes into sheep) would offend
Jews and Muslims
3. Transfer of animal genes into food plants, which may be of particular concern to some
vegetarians.
4. Use of organisms containing human genes as animal feed (e.g. yeast modified to produce
human proteins of pharmaceutical value and the spent yeast then used as animal feed).

The report strongly recommended that the use of all ethically sensitive genes in food
organisms should be discouraged when alternatives could be found. Products from transgenic
organisms containing copy genes that are ethically unacceptable to some groups of the
population subject to dietary restriction for their religion should be so labelled to ensure
choice. The whole aspect of labelling GMO-derived foods is subject to much debate and may
eventually be different in different parts of the world. In the not too distant future it is highly
possible that all major food organisms will have had some form of genetic engineering in
their development and this could lead to complex labelling criteria.

Genetic engineering of animals may also arouse severe moral opposition if there are instances
of animals suffering as a result of this process. Already there is evidence of animals suffering
severe arthritis following application of transgenic growth hormones to improve their meat
quality. While some religious groups exercise strong discrimination of the type of animal that
can be eaten, the position can be quite different when considered from a medically derived
product (insulin from a pig pancreas) or the transplant of an animal organ. Almost all faiths
take the view that preservation of human life is the first priority. Thus pig-derived insulin can
be accepted by a Jew and by a Muslim only with special religious permission. Similarly, a
Jew could accept a pig organ transplant if absolutely essential. These contrary positions are
supported by the view that the human body can only be violated by oral intake and not by
other methods of introduction such as by injection or surgery.

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