Computer

Components

23CSE102 Computer Hardware Essentials

The Four Main Parts of a Computer System

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. User
Contd…
Hardware
• physical parts of the computer — anything you can touch (like keyboard, monitor, CPU,
etc.).
• includes all electronic components that perform input, output, and processing tasks.

Software
• refers to programs and instructions that tell the computer what to do.
• performs tasks, manages resources, and helps the user accomplish things like typing
documents, browsing the web, or editing photos.
• Types : system software and application software

Data
• Includes individual facts or information that the computer processes.
• On its own, data may not be meaningful — the computer’s job is to process this data and
turn it into useful information.

User
• The person who uses the computer.
• The user gives input and receives output from the system.
Types of software
System Software
• System software manages and controls computer hardware, providing a platform for
other software to run. Examples include operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux),
device drivers, and utilities. It ensures efficient resource management and acts as an
interface between hardware and application software.
• A utility is a program that makes the computer system easier to use or performs highly
specialized functions. Utilities are used to manage disks, troubleshoot hardware
problems, and perform other tasks that the operating system itself may not be able to
do.

Application Software
• Application software is designed to perform specific tasks for users. It can be further
divided into:
• General-purpose software: Includes tools like word processors, spreadsheets, and
presentation software
• Special-purpose software: Tailored for specific needs, such as accounting software or
graphic design tools.
Functional Units of a Computer
1. Input Unit
2. Processing Unit
3. Output Unit
4. Storage Unit
Input Unit
• The computer accepts data from an input source (user
or program) for processing.
Processing Unit
• CPU : Central processing unit

• Brain of the computer

• does most of the thinking, calculating, and decision-making to make your computer work

• The CPU is usually placed in a special slot called a socket on the computer’s motherboard,
which is like the main circuit board that connects all the parts of a computer.

• Examples for processors : Intel Core i9, AMD Ryzen 9, Apple M1

Types of CPUs

• CPUs come in different types, depending on how many cores they have.

• A core is like a mini-CPU inside the main CPU, and more cores mean the CPU can do more tasks
at once. Types:
• Single-Core CPU: The oldest type, used in the 1970s. It can only handle one task at a time,
so it’s slow for modern apps like games or web browsers.
• Dual-Core CPU: Has two cores, so it can handle two tasks at once. It’s faster and better for
multitasking, like listening to music while doing homework.
• Quad-Core CPU: Has four cores, making it great for heavy tasks like video editing or
playing modern games. It’s very fast and common in today’s computers.
Main Components of CPU
Contd…
• Control Unit:
• manages the CPU by sending signals like clock, hold, and reset to its
parts.
• It ensures all components work together to complete tasks. For example,
it synchronizes data movement from cache memory to the ALU.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
• The ALU handles arithmetic tasks (like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division) and logical tasks (like AND, OR, comparisons).
• Memory Unit:
• stores data and instructions.
• Older CPUs used registers, but modern ones also have fast cache
memory.
• The CPU fetches data from RAM, ROM, or hard disks and stores it in
registers or cache during tasks.
Functions of the CPU
The CPU’s main job is to process instructions from programs. It does this
through a process called the Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store cycle:
Contd…
• Fetch:
• CPU gets the instruction during this phase. (That means binary
numbers that are passed from RAM to CPU)
• Decode:
• When the instruction is entered into the CPU, it needs to decode
the instructions.
• With the help of ALU, the process of decoding begins.
• Execute:
• After the decode step the instructions are ready to execute.
• Store:
• After the execute step the instructions are ready to be stored in the
memory.
Output Unit
• Output units, commonly referred to as output devices, are
hardware components that convert data from a computer into a
form that can be perceived by humans, such as visual, audio, or
printed output.
Storage Unit
• It is an integral component of a computer system that stores data, instructions,
and information.
• It is the work area for the CPU where data and instructions are stored for
quick access.
• Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
• The storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
Types of Memory
Primary Memory
• also known as internal memory and main memory.
• It is accessed directly by the processor
• holds program instructions, input data.
• generally smaller in size.
• RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory) are examples of primary storage.
RAM
• volatile memory which stores data temporarily; once power turned off, the
data which is inside the RAM gets erased.
• also known as primary or temporary memory.
• RAM stores the data that is actively being used during the execution of a
program or instruction.
• During the booting process of a system, the operating system actively uses
RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program.
• It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and instruction access.
• Once we start the computer; system necessary files, programs and
operating system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of
the computer.
• The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and
the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly.
Types of RAM
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
• It does not require being refreshed.
• It delivers faster read and write operations.
• It works as a cache memory in CPUs.
• It is less prone to errors and data corruption caused by the refresh process.
• It is very reliable and therefore is used for cache memory.
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
• It works as a main memory for the system.
• It is made up of capacitors that store the data, thus we need to refresh it multiple times.
• It is inexpensive so DRAM is mostly available in Laptops or PCs today.
• It requires less space and less power.
• It refreshes every millisecond to maintain data consistency.
• It is more power-efficient than SRAM.
• DRAM can store multiple bits on a single chip.
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory)
• It is faster than DRAM.
• After SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2,
DDR3, and DDR4 entered into the market and widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.
ROM
• non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted.
• The memory from which will only read but cannot write it.
• The information is stored permanently during manufacture only once.
• ROM stores instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation is referred to
as bootstrap.
• ROM chips can only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and
8 MB per ROM chip.
Types of ROM:
MROM (Masked Read-Only Memory)
• This memory device is no longer used nowadays due to obsolescence.
• Manufacturers are using this memory to store software and information during the
manufacturing process. Therefore, it is impossible to alter, reprogram, or erase this
type of pre-programmed chip later.
Types of ROM (contd…)
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
• It can be programmed and later erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light.
• After being erased, the EPROM can be reprogrammed.
• High voltage can be used to program the programmable read-only memory to write
data, which is then retained until exposed to ultraviolet light for 10 minutes or more.
• Applications : Video cards, Memory sticks, BIOS chips, and Modem.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
• an advanced type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed electrically.
• allows users to program and erase any desired spot.
• erased byte by byte rather than the full chip.
• Applications : Bios Chip and Microcontrollers for Smart Cards.
Flash Memory
• type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks rather than one byte
at a time which allows for faster and more efficient operations.
• Applications: storage devices like USB drives, memory cards, and SSDs.
Secondary Memory
• cannot be directly accessed by the CPU.
• slower than primary memories
• store data permanently.
• also known as non-volatile or auxiliary memory.
Types of Secondary memory
• Magnetic Storage
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
• Floppy Disk (Obsolete)
• Magnetic Tape
• Optical Storage
• CD (Compact Disc): CD-ROM, CD-R (Recordable), CD-RW (Rewritable)
• DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): DVD-ROM, DVD-R/DVD+R, DVD-RW/DVD+RW
• Blu-ray Disc (BD)
• Flash Storage (Solid-State Storage)
• Solid-State Drive (SSD)
• USB Flash Drive (Pen Drive)
• Memory Cards (SD Card, microSD, etc.)
• Cloud Storage
• Google Drive
• Dropbox
• OneDrive
• Amazon S3
• Hybrid Storage
• Hybrid Drive (HDD + SSD Combination)
• SSHD (Solid-State Hybrid Drive)
Memory Hierarchy
Programming Languages

• defines a set of instructions that are compiled

together to perform a specific task by the CPU.
• Types :
• Low-level language
• Machine language
• Assembly language
• High-level language
Types of programming languages
Machine-level language
• consists of a set of instructions that are in the binary form 0 or 1.
Assembly language
• contains some human-readable commands such as mov, add, sub, etc.
• it is easier to write and understand.
• translator called assembler converts the assembly code into machine code.
High-level language
• allows a programmer to write the programs which are independent of a
particular type of computer.
• they are closer to human languages than machine-level languages.
• Compiler translates high-level language into machine language.
• Eg.: C, C++, Java, python etc.
 Summary

• Computer Components
• Functional Units
• Programming Languages