MODULE 4:

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Electron configuration of an atom is the representation of the arrangement
of electrons distributed among the orbital shells and subshells.
Used to describe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, but it can also
be used to represent an atom that has ionized into a cation or anion by
compensating with the loss of or gain of electrons in their subsequent
orbitals.
The valence electrons, electrons in the outermost shell, are the determining
factor for the unique chemistry of the element.

Understanding Quantum Theory of Electrons in Atoms

The energy levels are labeled with an n value, where n = 1, 2, 3, …. Generally
speaking, the energy of an electron in an atom is greater for greater values
of n. This number, n, is referred to as the principal quantum number.
The principal quantum number defines the location of the energy level.
Another name for the principal quantum number is the shell number. The
shells of an atom can be thought of concentric circles radiating out from the
nucleus.
The further we proceed from the nucleus, the
higher the shell number, and so the higher the
energy level. The positively charged protons in
the nucleus stabilize the electronic orbitals by
electrostatic attraction between the positive
charges of the protons and the negative
charges of the electrons. So the further away
the electron is from the nucleus, the greater
the energy it has.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

Wolfgang Pauli - an Austrian physicist
No two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same set of all the
four quantum numbers.
No more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital (and if two
electrons are located in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins).
Therefore, any atomic orbital can be populated by only zero, one, or two
electrons.

NAME SYMBOL ALLOWED VALUES PHYSICAL MEANING

Principal Quantum Number n 1,2,3,4,... shell
Angular Momentum l 0≤/≤n-1 subshell
Quantum Number m -/≤m ≤/ orientation
Magnetic Quantum Number
Spin Quantum Number m ½, -½ direction
 Principal QN - shell, the region for the value of energy for an electron;
describes the main energy or shell that contains electrons.
Angular Momentum QN - subshell, the shape of the orbital (l = n-1).
Magnetic QN - orientation of the orbital
Spin QN - direction of the intrinsic quantum “spinning” of the electron

Atomic Orbitals
An atomic orbital is a general region in an atom within which an electron is
most probable to reside.
is a mathematical function describing the location and wave-like behavior of
an electron in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the
probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around
the atom's nucleus.
There are four basic types of orbitals: s, p, d, and f.
An s orbital has a spherical shape and can hold two electrons.
There are three p orbitals, each of which has the same basic dumbbell
shape but differ in its orientation in space. The p orbitals can hold up to six
electrons.
There are five d orbitals, which have more complicated shapes than s and p
orbitals. The shape and orientation of the d orbitals, which together can
hold up to 10 electrons.
The seven f orbitals, which are found in lanthanides and actinides, can hold
up to 14 electrons.

Atomic Structure of Orbitals

Orbital Energies and Atomic Structure

The energy of atomic orbitals increases as the principal quantum number, n,
increases. In any atom with two or more electrons, the repulsion between
the electrons makes energies of subshells with different values of ll differ so
that the energy of the orbitals increases within a shell in the order s < p < d <
f. The 1s orbital at the bottom of the diagram is the orbital with electrons of
lowest energy.
The energy increases as we move up to the 2s and then 2p, 3s, and 3p
orbitals, showing that the increasing n value has more influence on energy
than the increasing l value for small atoms. However, this pattern does not
hold for larger atoms. The 3d orbital is higher in energy than the 4s orbital.
Such overlaps continue to occur frequently as we move up the chart.
The Aufbau Principle
Neils Bohr - a Danish physicist
an application of the laws of quantum mechanics to the properties of
electrons subject to the electric field created by the positive charge on the
nucleus of an atom and the negative charge on other electrons that are
bound to the nucleus.
We add one proton at a time to the nucleus and one electron to the proper
subshell until we have described the electron configurations of all the
elements. Each added electron occupies the subshell of lowest energy
available, subject to the limitations imposed by the allowed quantum
numbers according to the Pauli exclusion principle. Electrons enter higher-
energy subshells only after lower-energy subshells have been filled to
capacity.

Rules For Filling In The Electrons

[Link] Pauli principle: No more than two electrons can occupy a given orbital. If
there are two electrons in an orbital, their spins must be paired (one must have
m_s = +1/2 and the other, m_s= − 1/2).

[Link] Aufbau (building-up) principle: When electrons are filled in to orbitals in

an atom, the orbitals with lower energy are filled first. The order of filling is 1s,
2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s .

3. The Hund rule: Electrons will occupy different orbitals in a given subshell,
before two electrons will occupy a single orbital.

Give the ground-state electron configuration of the following elements using

the orbital diagram.
1. Neon 6. Beryllium
2. Fluorine 7. Lithium
3. Oxygen 8. Helium
4. Carbon 9. Hydrogen
5. Boron 10. Phosphorus
 Valency and Valence Electron
The outermost orbital shell of an atom is called its valence shell, and the
electrons in the valence shell are valence electrons. Valence electrons are
the highest energy electrons in an atom and are therefore the most reactive.
While inner electrons (those not in the valence shell) typically don't
participate in chemical bonding and reactions, valence electrons can be
gained, lost, or shared to form chemical bonds.
For this reason, elements with the same number of valence electrons tend
to have similar chemical properties, since they tend to gain, lose, or share
valence electrons in the same way. The Periodic Table was designed with
this feature in mind. Each element has a number of valence electrons equal
to its group number on the Periodic Table.

Use an orbital diagram to describe the electron configuration of the valence

shell of each of the following atoms:
1. V
2. Si
3. Te
4. Mo
5. Which atom has the electron configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2?

6. Which of the following atoms contains only three valence electrons: Li, B, N,
F, Ne?
PERIODIC TRENDS
are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate
different aspects of a certain element, including its size and its electronic
properties.
- Electronegativity
- Ionization Energy
- Electron Affinity
- Atomic Radius
- Melting Point
- Metallic Character

Electronegativity Trends
Electronegativity measures an atom's tendency to attract and form bonds
with electrons.
The most common scale for quantifying electronegativity is the Pauling scale,
named after the chemist Linus Pauling.
The numbers assigned by the Pauling scale are dimensionless due to the
qualitative nature of electronegativity.
Electronegativity exists due to the electronic configuration of atoms. Most
atoms follow the octet rule (having the valence, or outer, shell comprise of 8
electrons). Because elements on the left side of the periodic table have less
than a half-full valence shell, the energy required to gain electrons is
significantly higher compared with the energy required to lose electrons.
“The more inclined an atom is to gain electrons, the more likely that atom will
pull electrons toward itself.”
> From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases.
> From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases.
> As for the transition metals, although they have electronegativity values,
there is little variance among them across the period and up and down a
group.

Ionization Energy Trends

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a
neutral atom in its gaseous phase.
Opposite of electron affinity
The lower this energy is, the more readily the atom becomes a cation.
Therefore, the higher this energy is, the more unlikely it is the atom becomes
a cation.
 Ionization energy increases from left to right on the periodic table.
The ionization energy of the elements within a period generally increases
from left to right. This is due to valence shell stability.
The ionization energy of the elements within a group generally decreases
from top to bottom. This is due to electron shielding.
The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full
valence shells as indicated in the graph. Note that helium has the highest
ionization energy of all the elements.
> Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increase. This observation is
affected by n (the principal quantum number) and Zeff (based on the atomic
number and shows how many protons are seen in the atom) on the ionization
energy (I). The relationship is given by the following equation:
> Across a period, Zeff increases and n (principal quantum
number) remains the same, so the ionization energy
increases.
> Down a group, n increases and Zeff increases slightly; the ionization
energy decreases.

Electron Affinity Trends

Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an electron.
Electron affinity is a quantitative measurement of the energy change that
occurs when an electron is added to a neutral gas atom.
The more negative the electron affinity value, the higher an atom's affinity
for electrons.
> Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is caused
by the decrease in atomic radius.
> Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is
caused by the increase in atomic radius.
Atomic Radius Trends
The atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms.
Not all atoms are normally bound together in the same way. Some are bound
by covalent bonds in molecules, some are attracted to each other in ionic
crystals, and others are held in metallic crystals.
The covalent radii of these molecules are often referred to as atomic radii.
This distance is measured in picometers. Atomic radius patterns are
observed throughout the periodic table.
Atomic size gradually decreases from left to right across a period of
elements. This is because, within a period or family of elements, all electrons
are added to the same shellbut, at the same time, protons are being added
to the nucleus, making it more positively charged.
The effect of increasing proton number is greater than that of the increasing
electron number; therefore, there is a greater nuclear attraction because the
nucleus attracts the electrons more strongly, pulling the atom's shell closer
to the nucleus.
The valence electrons occupy higher levels due to the increasing quantum
number (n). As a result, the valence electrons are further away from the
nucleus as ‘n’ increases. Electron shielding prevents these outer electrons
from being attracted to the nucleus; thus, they are loosely held, and the
resulting atomic radius is large.
The valence electrons are held closer towards the nucleus of the atom. As a
result, the atomic radius decreases.
> Atomic radius decreases from left to right within a period. This is caused by
the increase in the number of protons and electrons across a period. One
proton has a greater effect than one electron; thus, electrons are pulled
towards the nucleus, resulting in a smaller radius.
> Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused
by electron shielding.

Melting Point Trends

The melting point(s) is the amount of energy required to break a bond(s) to
change the solid phase of a substance to a liquid. Generally, the stronger the
bond between the atoms of an element, the more energy required to break
that bond. Because temperature is directly proportional to energy, a high
bond dissociation energy correlates to a high temperature. Melting points
are varied and do not generally form a distinguishable trend across the
periodic table.
 > Metals generally possess a high melting point.
> Most non-metals possess low melting points.
> The non-metal carbon possesses the highest melting point of all the
elements. The semi-metal boron also possesses a high melting point.

Metallic Character Trends

The metallic character of an element can be defined as how readily an atom
can lose an electron.
From right to left across a period, metallic character increases because the
attraction between valence electron and the nucleus is weaker, enabling an
easier loss of electrons.
Metallic character increases as you move down a group because the atomic
size is increasing. When the atomic size increases, the outer shells are farther
away. The principal quantum number increases and average electron density
moves farther from nucleus.
The electrons of the valence shell have less attraction to the nucleus and, as
a result, can lose electrons more readily. This causes an increase in metallic
character.
Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right across a period. This is
caused by the decrease in radius (caused by Zeff, as stated above) of the
atom that allows the outer electrons to ionize more readily.
Metallic characteristics increase down a group. Electron shielding causes the
atomic radius to increase thus the outer electrons ionizes more readily than
electrons in smaller atoms.
Metallic character relates to the ability to lose electrons, and nonmetallic
character relates to the ability to gain electrons.
> Move left across period and down the group: increase metallic character
(heading towards alkali and alkaline metals)
> Move right across period and up the group: decrease metallic character
(heading towards nonmetals like noble gases).
 PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic Table of Elements
Periodic table of elements is the organized array of all the chemical
elements in order of increasing atomic number —i.e., the total number of
protons in the atomic nucleus.
When the chemical elements are thus arranged, there is a recurring pattern
called the “periodic law” in their properties, in which elements in the same
column (group) have similar properties.

THE FIRST PERIODIC TABLE

The initial discovery of the periodic table of elements was made by Dmitry
I. Mendeleyev in the mid-19th century. Mendeleyev’s periodic table of 1869
contained 17 columns, with two nearly complete periods (sequences) of
elements.
He and Lothar Meyer, also proposed a table with eight columns obtained
by splitting each of the long periods into a period of seven, an eighth group
containing the three central elements.
Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt) and Sir William Ramsay discovered the
noble gases in 1894 and the following years, Mendeleyev and others proposed
that a new “zero” group to accommodate them be added to the periodic table.

OTHER VERSIONS OF PERIODIC TABLE

One of the earliest, described by Alfred Werner in 1905, divides each of
the shorter periods into two parts, one at either end of the table over the
elements in the longer periods that they most resemble.
The multiple tie lines connecting the periods in the Bayley-type table can
be greatly simplified by removing the lanthanoid and actinoid elements to a
separate area. By the mid-20th century this version of the table had become
the most commonly used.
HISTORY OF PERIODIC LAW
Dobereiner’s Triads
Johann Dobereinerin 1817 observed that certain elements, which had
similar chemical properties, could be grouped together. When these elements
were arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses, they generally
occurred in groups of three. These groups were called triads. He noticed that
the atomic mass of the middle element of the triad was the arithmetic mean of
the other two elements of the triad. This was known as the Dobereiner's law of
triads.
The law states that when elements are placed in the ascending order of
atomic masses, groups of three elements having similar properties are obtained.
The atomic mass of the middle element of the triad is equal to the mean of the
atomic masses of the other two elements of the triad.
Drawbacks of Dobereiner's law of triad were that, it was valid only for a few
groups of elements known during that time. Also with more accurate
measurements of atomic masses showed that the mid element of the triad did
not really have the mean value of the sum of the other two elements of the
triad.
Example of Dobereiner’s triads

Newland’s Octaves
In 1865, after the failure of Doberiener’s triad the English chemist, John
Alexander Newlands gave the law of octaves. According to him, elements can be
arranged in ascending order of their atomic weights. He also said that in this
arrangement every eighth element of a row had similar properties to that of the
first element of the same row, depicting the octaves of music. This law was also
dismissed as it was only true for elements of up to calcium.
Examples of Octaves Law
- Sodium is one of lithium’s eight elements. Potassium, lithium, sodium, and
potassium are the chemical properties of the eight sodium elements.
- Chlorine is the eighth element after fluorine. The chemical properties of
fluorine and chlorine are similar.
- When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass order, Newland’s law
of octaves states that the properties of the eighth element are the same as the
first.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
The real development in the periodic table took place after the
development of Mendeleev’s periodic table. He gave a law which states that
“The properties of an element are the periodic function of their atomic
masses”. He arranged elements in periods (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical
columns) in the increasing order of atomic weights. The vertical column consists
of elements that have similar properties.
Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
1. It did not provide a clear idea about the structure of the atom.
2. In order to arrange elements in a group, the order of atomic weight was
reversed several times.
The discovery of new elements and their subsequent addition to the
periodic table keeps revealing new dimensions in periodicity.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
In the long form periodic table the elements are arranged in the order of
their atomic numbers. Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of
protons inside the nucleus of its atom.
The general features of the long form periodic table are:
> There are in all, 18 vertical columns and 18 groups in the long form periodic
table.
> These groups are numbered from 1 to 18 starting from the left.
> There are seven horizontal rows called periods in the long form periodic table.
Thus, there are seven periods in the long form periodic table.
> The elements of Groups 1, 2 and 13 through 18 are called the main group
elements. These are also called typical or representative or normal elements.
> The elements of Groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.
> Elements with atomic number 57 to 71 (Ce to Lu) occurring after lanthanum
(La) are called lanthanides. Elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103 (Th to Lw)
are called actinides. These elements are called f-block elements and also as
inner transition elements.
Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
The far left side of the periodic table includes two groups of highly reactive
metals. With the exception of hydrogen, the first column consists of the soft,
shiny alkali metals. These metals have only one electron in their valence shell,
which is easily donated to another atom in chemical reactions. Because of their
explosive reactivity in both air and water, the alkali metals are found in their
elemental form in nature. In the second group, the alkaline earth metals have
two valence electrons, making them slightly harder and less reactive. However,
these metals are still rarely found in their elemental form.

Transition Metals
The majority of elements in the periodic table are classified as metals. The
transition metals lie in the center of the table, spanning groups three through
12. These elements are solid at room temperature, except mercury, and have
the metallic color and malleability expected of metals.
Because the valence shells grow so large, some of the transition metals are
excerpted from the periodic table and appended to the bottom of the chart;
these known as the Lanthanides and Actinides. Many of the transition metals
near the bottom of the periodic table are rare and unstable.

Metalloids and Nonmetals

On the right side of the periodic table, a rough diagonal line divides the
metals on the left from the nonmetals on the right. Straddling this line are the
metalloids, such as germanium and arsenic, which have some metallic
properties. Chemists categorize all elements to the right of this dividing line as
nonmetals, with the exception of group 18 on the far right.
Many of the nonmetals are gaseous, and all are notable for their tendency
to gain electrons and fill their valence shells.

Noble Gases
Group 18, on the far right side of the periodic table, is composed entirely
of gases. These elements have full valence shells, and tend to neither gain nor
lose electrons. As a result, these gases exist almost exclusively in their
elemental form. Chemists classify them as noble or inert gases. All the noble
gases are colorless, odorless and nonreactive.