11 CHAPter ToPics

mEmBERs AND lEADERs

CHAPter OBJectiVes
 isten to Chapter 11 at
L
MyCommunicationLab

In this chapter you’ll explore the After reading this chapter you should
­following major topics: be able to:
memBers iN SmAll groUP 11.1 define group task roles, group building
CommUNicAtioN and maintenance roles, and individual
roles and give examples of each; and
apply the suggestions for member
participation.
LeADers iN SmAll groUP 11.2 define leadership and distinguish among
CommUNicAtioN the traits, functional, transformation, and
situation approaches; and apply the sug-
gestions for effective group leadership.
memBersHiP, LeADersHiP, 11.3 Explain the impact of culture on small
AND CUltUre group membership and leadership
behavior.

Groups without leaders

are rare.
 228 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

T hroughout your life, you’ll participate in a wide

variety of groups—as a member of a work group,
as a part of a social or neighborhood group, or as
_____ 11. I express personal perspectives and
feelings.
_____ 12. I express confusion or deprecate
a player on a team. Probably you’ll also lead some myself.
of these social or work groups, and your leadership
As you’ll see as you read further, these behaviors
responsibilities are likely to increase as you rise in
are characteristic of the three general types of group
the group hierarchy. In this chapter we continue our
member roles—a classification introduced in early
coverage of small group communication with a focus
research (Benne & Sheats, 1948) and still widely used
on members and leaders. Let’s look at small group
today (Beebe & Masterson, 2012). Statements 1–4
membership first.
refer to your taking on group task roles, and state-
ments 5–8 refer to your taking on group building and
maintenance roles. Both of these types of roles are
Members in Small
11.1
productive. Statements 9–12, however, refer to your
Group Communication taking an individual rather than a group focus; these
are the behaviors that often work against the group’s
You can view membership in small group communi- achieving its goals. As you read the following sections
cation situations from a variety of perspectives—in on member roles, try to relate these roles to your own
terms of the roles that members serve, the types of behavior or to group behavior you’ve witnessed. Then
contributions they make, and the principles for more ask yourself what worked and what didn’t work.
effective participation. What roles were productive, and what roles were
unproductive?
Member Roles Group Task Roles
Each of us serves many roles, patterns of behaviors Group task roles are those that help the group focus
that we customarily perform and that we’re expected more specifically on achieving its goals. In serving
by others to perform. Javier, for example, is a part- any of these roles, you act not as an isolated indi-
time college student, father, bookkeeper, bowling vidual, but rather as a part of the larger whole. The
team captain, and sometime poet. That is, he acts as a needs and goals of the group dictate the task roles
student—attends class, reads textbooks, takes exams, you serve. As an effective group member you would
and does the things we expect of college students. serve several of these functions.
He also performs those behaviors associated with Some people, however, lock into a few specific
fathers, bookkeepers, and so on. In a similar way, you roles. For example, one person may almost always
develop ways of behaving when participating in small seek the opinions of others, another may ­concentrate
groups. Before reading about the roles of members in on ­ elaborating details, still another on ­ evaluating
small groups, respond to each of the following state- suggestions. Usually this kind of single focus is
­
ments by noting True (if the statement is often or ­counterproductive. It’s usually better for group task
generally true of your small group behavior and False roles to be spread more evenly so each member may
(if the statement is often or generally untrue of your serve many roles. The 12 specific group task roles are
membership behavior. the following.
_____ 1. I present new ideas and suggest new ■ Initiator–contributor. Presents new ideas
strategies. or new perspectives on old ideas, suggests
_____ 2. I ask for facts and opinions. new goals, or proposes new procedures or
_____ 3. I stimulate the group. ­organizational strategies.
_____ 4. I give examples and try to look for ■ Information seeker. Asks for facts and ­opinions
­positive solutions. and seeks clarification of the issues being
_____ 5. I positively reinforce group members. discussed.
_____ 6. I try to reconcile differences.
■ Opinion seeker. Tries to discover the values
_____ 7. I go along with the other members.
underlying the group’s task.
_____ 8. I offer compromises as ways of
­resolving conflict. ■ Information giver. Presents facts and opinions
_____ 9. I express negative evaluation of the to the group members.
actions and feelings of the group ■ Opinion giver. Presents values and opinions and
members. tries to spell out what the values of the group
_____ 10. I try to run the group. should be.
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 229

■ Elaborator. Gives examples and tries to work out ■ Group observer and commentator. Keeps a
possible solutions, trying to build on what others record of the proceedings and uses this in the
have said. group’s evaluation of itself.
■ Coordinator. Spells out relationships among ■ Follower. Goes along with the members of the
ideas and suggested solutions and coordinates the group, passively accepts the ideas of others, and
activities of the different members. functions more as an audience than as an active
member.
■ Orienter. Summarizes what has been said and
addresses the direction the group is taking.
Individual Roles
■ Evaluator–critic. Evaluates the group’s decisions,
The group task and group building and maintenance
questions the logic or practicality of the sugges-
roles just considered are productive roles; they aid
tions, and thus provides the group with both
the group in achieving its goals. Individual roles, on
­positive and negative feedback.
the other hand, are counterproductive; they hinder
■ Energizer. Stimulates the group to greater the group’s productivity and member ­satisfaction,
activity. largely because they focus on serving individual
■ Procedural technician. Takes care of various rather than group needs. As you read about these
mechanical duties such as distributing group eight specific types, consider what you’d say to each
materials and arranging seating. of them if you were a member or a leader of the group
and wanted to deal with this dysfunctional role-­
■ Recorder. Writes down the group’s activities,
playing but, at the same time, didn’t want to alienate
suggestions, and decisions; he or she serves as the
the individual or the group.
memory of the group.
■ Aggressor. Expresses negative evaluation of the
actions or feelings of the group members; he
Group Building and Maintenance Roles or she attacks the group or the problem being
Most groups focus not only on the task to be considered.
­performed but also on interpersonal r­elationships ■ Blocker. Provides negative feedback, is
among members. If the group is to function ­disagreeable, and opposes other members or
effectively and if members are to be both satis-
­ ­suggestions regardless of their merit.
fied and productive, these relationships must be ■ Recognition seeker. Tries to focus attention on
­nourished. When these needs are not met, group himself or herself rather than on the task at hand,
members may become irritable when the group boasting about his or her own accomplishments.
­process gets bogged down, may engage in frequent ■ Self-confessor. Expresses his or her own feelings
conflicts, or may find the small group process as and personal perspectives rather than focusing on
a whole ­unsatisfying. The group and its members the group.
need the same kind of support that individuals
■ Playboy/playgirl. Jokes around without any
need. The group ­building and maintenance roles
regard for the group process.
serve this general function. Group building and
maintenance functions are ­broken down into seven ■ Dominator. Tries to run the group or the group
specific roles. members by pulling rank, flattering members of
the group, or acting the role of the boss.
■ Encourager. Supplies members with positive
■ Help seeker. Expresses insecurity or confusion
reinforcement in the form of social approval or or deprecates himself or herself and thus tries to
praise for their ideas. gain sympathy from the other members.
■ Harmonizer. Mediates differences among group ■ Special interest pleader. Disregards the goals
members. of the group and pleads the case of some special
■ Compromiser. Offers compromises as a way group.
to resolve conflicts between his or her ideas and
those of others. As you might expect, your ­tendency to play group ver-
sus individual roles will be influenced by your culture—
■ Gatekeeper–expediter. Keeps the channels of and especially by your ­ individualist or collectivist
communication open by reinforcing the efforts of ­orientation, as discussed
others.  Watch at
in Chapter 2, and your MyCommunicationLab
■ Standard setter. Proposes standards for the func- power orientation, as dis- Video: “Politics of
tioning of the group or for its solutions. cussed in Chapter 10. Sociology”
 230 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

Interaction Process Analysis offer improvement suggestions for individual mem-

bers based on this analysis.
Another way of looking at the contributions group
members make is through interaction process
­analysis (IPA), developed by Robert Bales (1950). In Member Functions and Skills
this system you analyze the contributions of m­ embers
under four general categories: (1) social–­emotional For another perspective on group membership, let’s
positive contributions, (2) social–­ emotional nega- consider some of the functions and skills for effective
tive contributions, (3) attempted answers, and participation in small group communication.
(4) ­questions. Each of these four areas contains three
sub-divisions, yielding a total of 12 categories into Be Group or Team Oriented
which you can classify group members’ contributions In the small group you’re a member of a team, a larger
(Table 11.1). Note that the categories under social– whole. As a group your task is to pool your talents,
emotional positive are the natural opposites of those knowledge, and insights so as to arrive at a better
under social–emotional negative, and those under solution than any one person could have developed.
attempted answers are the natural opposites of those This call for group orientation is not to be taken as a
under questions. You may want to try out Bales’s IPA suggestion that members abandon their individuality
system by listening to a small group discussion or a or give up their personal values or beliefs for the sake
televised situation comedy or drama and recording of the group, however. Individuality with a group
the interactions using Bales’s IPA. ­orientation is what is advocated here.
Both the member role classification and the IPA
categories are useful for analyzing the contributions Center Conflict on Issues
members make in small group situations. When you It’s particularly important in the small group to center
look at member contributions through these sys- conflict on issues rather than on personalities. When
tems, you can see, for example, if one member is you disagree, make it clear that your disagreement is
locked into a particular role or if the group process with the solution suggested or with the ideas expressed,
is breaking down because too many people are serv- not with the person who expressed them. Similarly,
ing individual rather than group goals or because when someone disagrees with what you say, don’t take it
social–emotional negative comments dominate the as a personal attack. Instead, view this as an ­opportunity
discussion. You should also be in a better position to to discuss issues from an alternative point of view.

Table 11.1 Interaction Process Analysis Form

The names of participants appear in the top spaces, as shown by the examples here. In the column under each participant’s name,
you place a slash mark for each contribution in each of the 12 categories. (Based on Robert Bales, 1950.)

Joe Judy Liz Mike Peg

Social–Emotional Positive Contributions Shows solidarity

Shows tension release

Shows agreement

Social–Emotional Negative Contributions Shows disagreement

Shows tension

Shows antagonism

Attempted Answers Gives suggestions

Gives opinions

Gives information

Questions Asks for suggestions

Asks for opinions

Asks for information

 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 231

Be Critically Open-Minded
Because the most effective and creative solutions
often emerge from a combination of ideas, approach
small group situations with flexibility; come to the
group with ideas and information but without firmly
formulated conclusions. Advance any solutions or
conclusions tentatively rather than with certainty.
Be willing to alter your suggestions and revise them
in light of the discussion.

Beware of Social Loafing

Visualize yourself in a rope-pulling contest—you need
to successfully pull the members of the other side
into the pond or they will pull you. With this vision in
mind, consider whether you would exert more effort
if you were alone or if you were part of a group of five
or six. The concept of social loafing resulted from
experiments like this that measured the amount of
effort people actually exerted alone versus in groups;
it holds that you exert less effort when you’re a part
of the group than when alone (Latané, Williams, &
Harkins, 2006). Being aware of this tendency is a
useful first step in combating it. It’s often an unpro- Communication Choice Point
ductive group tendency that leads to less productive INDIVIDUAL ROLES In a group of workers, one
group interactions and decisions. And it is probably member consistently plays the role of blocker, objecting
to everything anyone says. Another member plays the
noticed by others and so hurts you professionally.
role of self-confessor, revealing feelings no one wants to
Some of the factors that influence social loafing and
hear. What are some of the options that members have
corresponding correctives are identified in Table 11.2. for dealing with individual role players like these?

Ensure Understanding
Make sure that your ideas are understood by all paraphrase to give the other person the opportunity
­participants. If something is worth saying, it’s worth to clarify, deny, or otherwise alter what was said. For
saying clearly. When in doubt, ask: “Is that clear?” example, you might say, “As I understand it, you want
“Did I explain that clearly?” Make sure, too, that you to exclude freshmen from playing on the football team.
understand fully the contributions of other mem- Is that correct? I disagree
bers, especially before you take issue with them. In with that idea, and I’d like  Watch at
fact, as explained in Chapter 10, it’s often wise to to explain why I think MyCommunicationLab
preface any extended disagreement with some kind of that would be a mistake.” Video: “Group Project”

Table 11.2  Social Loafing

Here are a few factors that influence the likelihood of social loafing to occur and some correctives (Kenrick, Neuberg, &
Cialdini, 2010).

Social loafing is more likely to occur when: Corrective Strategies

An individual group member’s contributions cannot be Make contributions easily identifiable and make
easily identified. ­members aware of this.

The punishment for poor performance is insignificant. Reward excellent performance and/or punish poor
performance.

The group lacks cohesion. Stress the importance of being part of a group or team;
­follow the suggestions for membership and leadership.

The task has little personal importance. Stress the personal connection between the members of
the group and the task.
 232 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

Beware of Groupthink ■ Self-censorship. Members censor their own doubts.

Groupthink is a way of thinking that people use ■ Assumption of unanimity. Group mem-
when agreement among members has become exces- bers believe that all members are in unani-
sively important. Groupthink is most likely to occur mous ­agreement, whether this is stated or
when there is high stress, when like-minded individu- not. This belief is encouraged, of course, by
als are isolated from others, and when there is an espe- ­members ­censoring their own doubts and
cially strong and opinionated leader. Overemphasis not ­allowing ­differences of opinion to be
on agreement among members tends to shut out discussed.
realistic and logical analysis of a problem or of pos-
■ Gatekeeping. Group members emerge whose
sible alternatives (Janis, 1983; Mullen, Tara, Salas, &
function it is to guard the information that gets
Driskell, 1994). The following symptoms should help
to other members, especially when it may create
you recognize groupthink in groups you observe or
diversity of opinion.
participate in (Janis, 1983; Richmond, McCroskey, &
McCroskey, 2005; Schafer & Crichlow, 1996). ■ Peer pressure. Groupthinkers pressure others to
go along with the group and not to express any
■ Illusion of invulnerability. Group members disagreement.
think the group and its members are invulnerable,
that they are virtually beyond being harmed. Here are three suggestions for combating
groupthink.
■ Avoidance. Members create rationalizations to
avoid dealing with warnings or threats. 1. When too-simple solutions are offered to
■ Assumption of morality. Members believe their ­problems, try to illustrate (with specific
group is moral and, often, that any opposition is ­examples, if possible) for the group members
immoral. how the ­complexity of the problem is not
■ Intolerance of differences of opinion. Those ­going to yield to the solutions offered.
opposed to the group are perceived in simplistic, 2. When you feel that members are not expressing
stereotyped ways, and group pressure is applied to their doubts about the group or its decisions,
any member who expresses doubts or questions encourage members to voice disagreement. Ask
the group’s arguments or proposals. members to play devil’s advocate, to test the
adequacy of the solution. Or, if members resist,
do it yourself. Similarly, if you feel there is
unexpressed disagreement, ask specifically if
anyone disagrees. If you still get no response,
it may be helpful to ask everyone to write his
or her comments anonymously, then read
them aloud to the group.
3. To combat the group pressure toward
­agreement, reward members who do voice
­disagreement or doubt. Say, for example,
“That’s a good argument; we need to hear
more about the potential problems of this
­proposal.
Explore at
Does anyone MyCommunicationLab
else see any Activity: “Enhancing
problems?” Groups”

A summary of these membership functions

Communication Choice Point and skills appears in Table 11.3.
ASSERTING YOURSELF IN A GROUP In your casual
c­ onversations with groups of friends as well as at work meetings, people
consistently ignore your cues that you want to say something. And when
From Member to Leader
you do manage to say something, no one reacts. You’re ­determined to
change this situation. Thinking back to the discussion of assertiveness
Throughout your small group experiences,
(pages 105–106) and power (pages 215–216), what are some of the you’ll serve the role of member most often. In
things you can do to speak more assertively and more powerfully? many cases, groups have no appointed leader.
What are some of the things you’d be sure to avoid ­doing or saying? In these situations, one member often emerges
as leader and becomes the de facto leader. Here
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 233

are a few behaviors that seem to contribute to a mem- ■ The member/leader displays the traits associated
ber emerging as leader. with leadership, for example, honesty, dominance,
and cooperativeness.
■ The member/leader listens to all members equally
and in the process gives positive listening cues, for ■ The member/leader focuses criticisms and
example, head nods and minimal verbal responses ­conflict on issues rather than on people.
like “I see” or “yes” (without taking over the role ■ The member/leader is fair and treats ­others and
of speaker). their positions as important to the group.
■ The member/leader gives positive affiliative
cues; the behaviors demonstrate a liking for the
­members and would include smiling, ­making Leaders in Small
11.2
eye contact when the person is talking, and Group Communication
­maintaining an open posture.
■ The member/leader is prepared and demonstrates Leadership is defined in two very different ways in
this with an in-depth knowledge of the issues and research and theory.
also a knowledge of the members—who they are ■ Leadership is the process of ­influencing the
and what they do, for example. thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of group members
■ The member/leader positively reinforces other and establishing the ­direction that others follow;
members by acknowledging their contributions leadership and influence are parts of the same skill.
with both verbal and nonverbal responses as ■ Leadership is the process of empowering others; the
appropriate. leader is the person who helps others to maximize
■ The member/leader shows flexible strength. This their potential and to take control of their lives.
person has opinions and doesn’t hesitate to voice These two definitions are not mutually exclusive;
them but is also flexible; this person is neither a in fact, most effective leaders do both; they influence
Gumby nor a stone wall. and they empower. As you read the remaining dis-
■ The member/leader is responsive to ­conversational cussion of leadership, keep these two definitions in
signals from other members. mind and see leadership as embodying both power and
■ The member/leader is culturally sensitive and empowerment.
avoids all sorts of stereotypes and -isms. If the In many small groups one person serves as leader.
group is of even moderate size, such remarks are In other groups, leadership may be shared by several
sure to offend someone. persons. In some cases a person may be appointed

Table 11.3

In A Nutshell A summary of some membership

­functions and skills
Membership Functions and Skills Specifically

Be Group or Team Oriented Avoid trying to dominate the group or its decisions.

Center Conflict on Issues Focus on the content issues but don’t ignore the
­personality conflicts.

Be Critically Open-Minded Be open, especially to ideas you may disagree with,

and be critical even of ideas that you do agree with.

Beware of Social Loafing Groups work best when members pull their own
weight.

Ensure Understanding Ask periodically if what you’re saying is clear.

Beware of Groupthink It’s easy to fall into this so be careful; when there is
too much agreeing, there is probably too little thinking.
 234 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

the leader or may serve as leader because of her or Myths about Leadership
his position within the company or hierarchy. In
As with many important concepts, beliefs about
other cases the leader may emerge as the group
leadership have grown. Some of these beliefs are
­
proceeds in fulfilling its functions or may be elected
erroneous and need to be recognized as such. Here
leader by the group members. Two significant fac-
are just three myths about leadership offered by—
tors exert considerable influence on who emerges
and here paraphrased from—small group theorists
as group leader. One is the extent of active par-
(Bennis & Nanus, 2003).
ticipation: The person who talks the most is more
likely to emerge as leader (Mullen, Salas, & Driskell, ■ Myth: The skills of leadership are rare. Actually,
1989; Shaw & Gouran, 1990). The second factor all of us have the potential for leadership; and, of
is effective listening: Members who listen effec- course, there are millions of leaders throughout
tively will emerge as leaders more often than those the world who are serving a variety of functions in
who don’t (Bechler & Johnson, 1995; Johnson & government, business, education, and countless
Bechler, 1998). other fields.
The emergent leader performs the duties of lead- ■ Myth: Leaders are born. Actually, the major
ership, though not asked or expected to, and grad- ­leadership skills can be learned by just about
ually becomes recognized by the members as the ­everyone. No specific genetic endowment is
group’s leader. And because this person has now ­necessary. We all can improve our leadership
proved herself or himself an effective leader, it’s not abilities.
surprising that this emergent leader often becomes ■ Myth: All leaders are charismatic. Actually, only
the designated leader for future groups. some leaders are. According to one survey of
The role of the leader or leaders is vital to the ­leaders (Bennis & Nanus, 2003), some were short
­well-being and effectiveness of the group. Even in and some were tall, some were articulate and some
leaderless groups in which all members are equal, inarticulate, and some dressed well and some
leadership functions must still be served. poorly. They were of all types and personalities.

Expanding Media Literacy

The Knowledge Gap

T he knowledge gap refers to the difference in

­knowledge between one group and another; it’s
the difference between those who have a great deal
own and the skills to master the new technologies and
thus acquire more information. Less-educated people
don’t have the money to own or the skills to master
of knowledge about some subject and those who have the new technologies and thus cannot acquire more
significantly less. Much of the research in this area ­information. Thus, the educated have the means for
has focused on the influence of the media in ­widening ­becoming even better educated, and the gap widens.
this knowledge gap though it is perhaps even more You also see the knowledge gap when you compare
­applicable to computer-mediated communication different cultures. Developed countries, for example, have
(Severin, 1988; Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1970; the new technologies in schools and offices, and people
Viswanath & Finnegan, 1995). in these countries can afford to buy their own computers
Information is valuable; it brings wealth and power. It and satellite systems. Access to the new technologies
gives you the means you need to get a high-paying job, to helps these countries develop even further. Developing
live a healthy life, to plan for retirement, or to accomplish countries, with significantly less financial resources, have
just about any task you set for yourself (Mastin, 1998). less access to such technologies and, therefore, cannot
But information is expensive, and not everyone has experience the same gain in knowledge and information
equal access to it. This is especially true as we live as those with significantly greater access.
more of our lives in cyberspace. The new communication Become more mindful of the knowledge gap as it
­technologies—computers, cell phone, e-book readers, operates around you—in your community or school or
high-speed Internet connections, satellite and cable ­nationally and internationally. Consider next what you
­television, for example—are major ways for gaining might do—as an individual—to address the inequities
­information. Better-educated people have the money to caused by the knowledge gap.
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 235

Approaches to Leadership sociability, cooperativeness, knowledge, and depend-

ability (Hackman & Johnson, 1991). The problem
Not surprisingly, leadership has been the focus
with the traits approach is that the specific quali-
of considerable attention from theorists and
ties called for will vary with the situation, with the
­researchers, who have used numerous approaches to
members, and with the culture in which the leader
­understand this particular communication behavior.
functions. Thus, for example, the leader’s knowledge
Before reading about these approaches, respond to
and personality are generally significant factors; but
the following statements about how you see yourself
for some groups a knowledge of financial issues
as a leader.
and a serious personality might be effective, whereas
I generally see myself as one who is:
for other groups a knowledge of design and a more
  1. generally popular with group members. humorous personality might be effective.
  2. knowledgeable about the topics and subjects
discussed. Functional Approach
  3. dependable. The functional approach to leadership focuses
  4. effective in establishing group goals. on what the leader should do in a given situation.
  5. competent in giving directions. We have already considered some of these func-
  6. capable of energizing group members. tions in the discussion of group membership, which
  7. charismatic (dynamic, engaging, powerful). ­identified group roles. Other functions found to be
  8. empowering of group members. associated with leadership are setting group goals,
  9. moral and honest. giving direction to group members, and summa-
10. skilled in balancing the concerns of getting rizing the group’s progress (Schultz, 1996). Still
the task done and satisfying group members’ other functions are identified in the section titled
personal needs. “Functions and Skills of Leadership,” later in this
11. flexible in adjusting leadership style on the chapter.
basis of the unique situation.
12. able to delegate responsibility. Transformational Approach
In the transformational approach to leadership,
These statements were presented to encourage you the leader elevates the group’s members, enabling
to look at yourself in terms of the four approaches them not only to accomplish the group task but
to leadership that will be discussed. Statements 1–3 also to emerge as more empowered individuals (Li &
refer to the traits approach to leadership, which Shi, 2003). At the center of the transformational
defines a leader as a person who possesses certain approach is the concept of charisma—that quality
qualities. Statements 4–6 refer to the functional of an individual that makes us believe in or want to
approach, which defines a leader as a person who per- ­follow him or her. Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr.,
forms certain functions. Statements 7–9 refer to the and John F. Kennedy may be cited as ­examples of
transformational approach, which defines a leader ­transformational leaders. These leaders were seen as
as a person who inspires the group members to role models of what they asked of their ­members,
become the best they can be. Statements 10–12 refer were perceived as extremely competent and able
to the situational approach, which defines a leader as leaders, and articulated moral goals (Northouse,
­
someone who can adjust his or her style to balance 1997). We’ll return to this concept of charisma in the
the needs of the specific situation. As you read the discussion of credibility in Chapter 18.
remainder of this chapter and the rest of the book,
try to identify specific skills and competencies you Situational Approach
might learn that would enable you to increase your The situational approach to leadership focuses
scores on all four approaches to leadership. Also, try on the two major responsibilities of the leader—
searching the Web for information on “leadership” accomplishing the task at hand and ensuring the
as well as, say, “business leadership” and “political satisfaction of the members—and recognizes that the
leaders.” leader’s style must vary on the basis of the specific
situation. Just as you adjust your interpersonal style
Traits Approach in ­conversation or your motivational appeals in pub-
The traits approach to leadership argues that lic speaking on the basis of the particular situation,
leaders must possess certain qualities if they’re to so you must adjust your leadership style. Leadership
function effectively. Some of the traits found to effectiveness, then, depends on ­ combining the
be ­associated with leadership are intelligence, concerns for task and people according to the
­
­dominance, honesty, foresight, altruism, popularity, ­specifics of the situation. Some situations will call for
 236 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

t
Understanding Theory and Research
Styles of Leadership

Small group communication researchers distinguish on member and group performance. Generally, this form
three basic types of group leaders: laissez-faire, of leadership results in both satisfaction and efficiency.
democratic, and authoritarian (Bennis & Nanus, 2003; The authoritarian leader, the opposite of the
Hackman & Johnson, 1991). ­laissez-faire leader, determines group policies and makes
The laissez-faire leader takes no initiative in ­directing decisions without consulting or securing ­agreement from
or suggesting alternative courses of action. Rather, this the members. This leader discourages ­member-to-member
leader allows the group to develop and progress on its communication but encourages communication from
own—even allowing it to make its own mistakes. The member to leader. The authoritarian leader is concerned
laissez-faire leader answers questions and provides with getting the group to accept his or her decisions
­information only when specifically asked. During the group rather than making its own. If the authoritarian leader
interaction, this leader neither compliments nor criticizes is ­competent, the group may be highly efficient, but its
the group’s members or their progress. Generally, this type ­members are likely to be less personally satisfied.
of leadership results in a satisfied but inefficient group.
The democratic leader provides direction but ­allows
the group to develop and progress the way its ­members
wish. This leader encourages group members to Working with Theories and Research
­determine their own goals and procedures and works to Which leadership style—say, in a classroom ­exercise
stimulate the self-direction and self-actualization of group with other students—are you likely to feel most
members. Unlike the laissez-faire leader, the democratic ­comfortable using? What leadership style would you
leader does contribute suggestions and does comment have difficulty working with as a group member?

high concentration on task issues, but will need little probably need a leader primarily to provide them
in the way of people encouragement. For example, a with the needed information to accomplish their
group of scientists working on AIDS research would task. They would be s­ elf-motivating and would prob-
ably need little in the way of social and emotional
encouragement. On the other hand, a group of
recovering alcoholics might require leadership
that stressed the social and emotional needs
of the members.
An interesting extension of the situa-
tional approach portrays four basic leader-
ship styles (Hersey, Blanchard, & Johnson,
2001). This theory claims that groups differ
in their degree of readiness. A group that
­contains members who are knowledgeable
and experienced and can demonstrate their
skill at a s­ ustained and acceptable level have
a high degree of readiness. Because of that
­readiness, group members are able to set
realistic and attainable goals. Continued
success and supportive behavior from oth-
ers tend to build confidence that leads
Communication Choice Point to higher ­levels of readiness where group
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP You’re a member of an
members are ­willing to appropriately take
­introductory Internet design team whose leader uses a delegating
responsibility for their decisions. A group
style that isn’t working. Group members are all new to this business
and need more direction and guidance. The group members have
this high in readiness is characterized by
elected you to clue the leader into appropriate and inappropriate members who are both w ­ illing and able to
styles. What are some options for dealing with this problem? What perform the task in question. This is a criti-
­preliminary information might you want to collect before saying cal point. A group or individual’s readiness
­anything? What might you say? Where would you say it? varies with the task; an individual may be
skilled at—and more than happy to engage
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 237

Understanding Theory and Research

Attila’s Theory of Leadership

From a totally different perspective, consider these be willing to depend on their group members to
leadership qualities, paraphrased from Wes Roberts’s ­accomplish matters they themselves can’t oversee.
Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun (1987), a study of
■ Credibility. Leaders must be seen as believable
the warrior who united many of the nomadic tribes in
by both friends and enemies; they must possess
first-century Asia.
the integrity and intelligence needed to secure and
■ Empathy. Leaders must develop an appreciation communicate accurate information.
for and an understanding of other cultures and the
■ Stewardship. Leaders must be caretakers of their
values of their group members.
group members’ interests and well-being; they must
■ Courage. Leaders should be fearless and should guide and reward subordinates.
have the courage to complete their assignments;
they must not complain about obstacles or be Working with Theories and Research
­discouraged by adversity.
Of these five qualities, which do you see as being the
■ Dependability. Leaders must be dependable in most important to you in your personal and social life?
carrying out their responsibilities; leaders must also What about in your business and professional life?

in—discussions about food and exercise, but less Get Ready

than amenable when it comes to talking about It often falls to the leader to provide members
finances. with necessary materials prior to the meeting. Pre-
Effective leadership, then, depends on the ­leader’s discussion functions may include, for example,
assessment of the group’s ability and willingness to do arranging a convenient meeting time and place;
the task. To complicate matters even more, the readi- informing members of the purposes and goals of the
ness of the group will also change as the group devel- meeting; providing them with materials they should
ops or regresses over time—so the style of leadership read or view; and recommending that they come to
will have to change in response to the changes in the the meeting with, for example, general ideas or spe-
group. The different styles of leadership, their focuses, cific proposals.
and their uses are pre- Explore at Similarly, groups form gradually and need to be
sented in Table 11.4 on MyCommunicationLab eased into meaningful discussion. Diverse members
page 238. Activity: “Leadership Style” should not be expected to sit down and ­ discuss
a problem without becoming familiar with one
another. Put more generally, the leader is responsible
Functions and Skills of Leadership for any preparations and preliminaries necessary to
In relatively formal small group situations, as when ensure an orderly and productive group experience.
politicians plan a strategy, advertisers discuss a cam-
paign, or teachers consider educational methods, Ensure Member Satisfaction
the leader has several specific functions. These func- Group members have different psychological needs
tions—a mixture of task and people functions—are and wants; in fact, many people enter groups primar-
not the exclusive property of the leader. Nevertheless, ily to satisfy these personal concerns. Even though a
when there’s a specific leader, he or she is expected to group may, for example, deal with economic prob-
perform them. lems, the members may have come together for rea-
As you read these functions, keep in mind that an sons that are more psychological than economic. If a
effective leader needs not only knowledge of the topic group is to be effective, it must meet not only the sur-
of the discussion but also communication compe- face purposes of the group but also the underlying or
tence—the ability to effectively use the group process interpersonal purposes that motivated many of the
as well as to use the varied communication skills that members to come together in the first place.
are discussed throughout this text. One of the most Depending on the specific people involved, special
important of these skills is the ability to manage adjustments may have to be made to accommodate
­conflict, a topic we discuss in detail in Chapter 13. group members with disabilities. You can easily adapt
 238 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

Table 11.4 Leadership Styles

This table presents four different leadership styles that provide the highest probability of successfully and effectively influencing
the behaviors of others based on their level of readiness for a specific task. As you can tell from these descriptions, the leader
exerts more control with groups that are new or that lack knowledge (telling and selling) and less control with more established,
more knowledgeable groups (participating and delegating).

Style Leadership Focus Uses

Telling Style This leader focuses almost exclusively on Appropriate for a group that lacks
the task and offers little, if any, ­relationship knowledge of the issues involved and
support. needs the direct guidance of a leader
who tells the members what they
should do.

Selling Style This leader is a persuasive one, giving Appropriate for a group that is trying
­specific guidance on the task and also hard but still lacks the needed skills or
relationship support. The aim is to get the information to accomplish their task.
group members to “buy into” the ideas and
to do as directed.

Participating Style This leader relies heavily on ­communicating, Appropriate for groups that know
facilitating, and ­encouraging group ­members. what to do but may not be so willing
This leader participates in the group’s to do it.
­problem solving but provides little direction.

Delegating Style This leader monitors and observes, rather Appropriate for groups that know what
than provides direction or relationship to do and are eager to do it.
support.

to group situations the principles identified in the Promote Group Interaction

special TIPS tables in Chapters 2, 4, 6, and 7 that deal Many groups need some prodding to interact.
with communication between people with and with- Perhaps the group is newly formed and the members
out disabilities. feel a bit uneasy with one another. One of the leader’s
functions is to stimulate the members to interact.
Activate the Group Agenda A leader also serves this function when members
Most groups have an agenda. An agenda is simply act as individuals rather than as a group. In this
a list of the tasks the group wishes to complete. It’s instance the leader needs to focus the members on
an itemized listing of what the group should devote their group task.
its attention to. In some cases the supervisor or Suppose that you are leading a group and have
consultant or CEO prepares the agenda and simply successfully stimulated group interaction, but now
presents it to the group; the group is then expected the discussion begins to drag. Your job is to prod
to follow the agenda item by item. In other cases the group to maintain effective interaction: “Do we
the group will develop its own agenda, usually as its have any additional comments on the proposal to
first or second order of business. Generally, the more eliminate required courses?” “What do those of you
formal the group, the more important the agenda who are members of the college curriculum commit-
becomes. In informal groups the agenda may simply tee think about the English Department’s proposal
consist of general ideas in the minds of the members to restructure required courses?” “Does anyone want
(for ­example, “We’ll review the class assignment and to make any additional comments on eliminating the
then make plans for the weekend”). In formal busi- minor area of concentration?” As the leader, you’ll
ness groups the agenda will be much more detailed want to ensure that all members have an opportunity
and explicit. Some agendas specify not only the items to express themselves.
that must be covered but also the order in which they Many individuals are egocentric and will pursue
should be covered and even the amount of time that only their own interests and concerns, even in a group
should be devoted to each item. setting. In promoting effective group interaction,
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 239

you’ll need to keep all members reasonably

on track. Here are a few ways you might
accomplish this.
■ Ask questions. Ask questions that focus
on the specific topic at hand, especially
of those who seem to be wandering off in
other directions.
■ Summarize. Interject internal summaries
in which you briefly identify what has
been ­accomplished and what the group
needs to move on to next.
■ Set an agenda. Consider setting a formal
agenda (if you don’t already have one) and
sticking to it.
■ Focus your attention. Focus your own
Communication Choice Point
attention on the topics at hand; your
SMALL GROUP CONFLICTS You’re leading a group of students
example will influence the behavior of the
charged with evaluating the core curriculum. The problem is that they
other members. simply want to party and keep postponing the task of evaluation.
What are some of the things you might do as a leader to get them
Empower Group Members to focus on the task at hand?
An important function in at least some
leadership styles (though not limited to
leadership) is to empower others—to help
­
other group members (but also your relational part- for doing whatever needs to be done to ensure that
ner, ­coworkers, employees, other students, or ­siblings) the group’s experience is productive.
to gain increased power over themselves and their A brief summary of
­environment. Some ways to empower others include these leadership f­ unctions  Watch at
the following. appears in Table 11.5 on MyCommunicationLab
page 240. Video: “Director’s Cut”
■ Raise the person’s self-esteem. Compliment,
r­ einforce, and resist faultfinding; it doesn’t
­benefit anyone (and in fact disempowers).
■ Share skills. Be willing to share your skills as well 11.3Membership,
as decision-making power and authority. Leadership, and Culture
■ Be constructively critical. Be willing to offer
your perspective, to lend an ear to an intern’s first Not surprisingly, culture influences the ways in which
proposal, for example. Be willing to react honestly group members and leaders act and are expected to act.
to suggestions from all group members and not
just those in high positions.
Individualism and Collectivism
■ Encourage growth. Encourage growth and
development in all forms: academic, relational, Most research on and theories about small group
and professional, among others. The growth and communication, membership, and leadership have
empowerment of the other person enhances your emerged from universities in the United States and
own growth and power. reflect U.S. culture. For example, in the United
States—and in individualist cultures generally—
each group member is important. But in collectivist
Follow Up ­cultures the individual is less important; it’s the group
Just as the leader is responsible for getting ready, the that is the significant entity. Individuals become
leader is also responsible for following up the discus- fulfilled and satisfied as members of the group
­
sion. Such follow-up functions might include sum- (Cathcart & Cathcart, 1985). In the United States,
marizing the group’s discussion, organizing future in contrast, individual fulfillment and satisfaction
meetings, or presenting the group’s decisions to is attained by the individual and through his or her
some other group. All in all, the leader is responsible own efforts, not by the group.
 240 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

Table 11.5

In A Nutshell A summary of some leadership functions

and skills
Leadership Functions and Skills Specifically

Get Ready Be prepared yourself and do whatever is needed

to prepare members.

Ensure Member Satisfaction Don’t forget that groups consist of individuals who
have needs the group is often expected to satisfy.

Activate the Group Agenda Get the group started on its task.

Promote Group Interaction Ask questions; reward member contributions.

Empower Group Members Empowered members are likely to be more

­effective group contributors.

Follow Up Most group deliberations or decisions need to be

communicated in some way to someone.

It’s often thought that because group give the ­ members decision-making power. Group
­ embership and group identity are so important
m members were ­
­ encouraged to contribute ideas,
in ­collectivist ­
cultures, it’s the group that makes but the ­ decision-making power was reserved for
important ­
­ decisions. Actually, this does not the CEO or for man-
Explore at
seem to be the case. In fact, a study of 48 (highly agers higher up the MyCommunicationLab
collectivist) Japanese ­
­ organizations found that ­organizational ­ladder Exercise: “How
participating in ­
­ decision-making groups did not (Brennan, 1991). Individualistic Are You?

Making Ethical Choices

The Leader’s Ethical Responsibilities

I n addition to mastering the skills of effective and

­efficient leadership, the leader needs also to con-
sider the ethical issues involved in leading a group or
■ Integrity. Leaders have integrity; they take the high
road. They don’t lie or deceive. And they avoid any
actions that might violate the basic rights of others.
an ­organization. Because the leader is often a chair- ■ Responsiveness. The leader must be responsive to
person, CHAIR seems an appropriate acronym to help all members of the group or the organization.
­identify at least some of the characteristics of the
­ethical leader:
■ Concern for the welfare of their members. Leaders Ethical Choice Point
who are more concerned with their own personal You’re leading a discussion among a group of high
interests, rather than with the group task or the school freshmen whom you’re mentoring. The topic turns
­interpersonal needs of the members, would clearly to marijuana, and the students ask you directly if you
be acting unethically. smoke pot. The truth is that on occasion you do—but
it’s a very controlled use, and you feel that it would
■ Honesty. Leaders should be honest with the group
only ­destroy your credibility and lead the students to
members by, for example, revealing any hidden
­experiment with or continue smoking pot if they knew
agendas and presenting information fairly.
you did (something you do not want to do). At the same
■ Accountability. Leaders should take responsibility time, you wonder if you can ethically lie to them and
for their actions and decisions, admit making mis- tell them that you do not smoke. What is your ethical
takes, and take corrective action when necessary. ­obligation in this situation? What would you do?
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 241

Member Roles democratic process; similarly, boards of directors are

elected by the shareholders of a corporation. In other
The discussion of member roles earlier in this c­ hapter
situations, of course, leaders are chosen by those
devoted an entire category to individual roles—
in authority. The directors choose the president of
roles adopted by individuals to satisfy individual
a company, and the president will normally decide
rather than group goals. In other cultures (notably
who will supervise and who will be supervised within
­collectivist cultures) these roles probably would not
the organization. Even in this situation, however, we
even be mentioned—simply because they wouldn’t
expect the supervisor to behave democratically—to
be acted out often enough to deserve such extended
listen to the ideas of employees, to take their views
discussion. For example, in many collectivist cultures
into consideration when decisions are to be made, to
the group orientation is too pervasive for individuals
keep them informed of corporate developments, and
to violate it by acting as the blocker, the recognition
generally to respect their interests. Also, we expect
seeker, or the dominator.
that leaders will be changed fairly regularly, much
as we elect a president every four years and company
Belief Systems directors each year.
In a similar way, each culture’s belief system influ- The most important implication of these dif-
ences group members’ behavior. For example, ferences in the ways in which group leaders and
members of many Asian cultures, influenced by
­ ­members interact is to be mindful that your member-
Confucian principles, believe that “the protruding ship and leadership styles (and the ways you respond
nail gets pounded down” and are therefore not likely to the membership and leadership styles of others)
to voice disagreement with the majority of the group. are influenced by the culture in which you were
Americans, on the other hand, influenced by the raised. Consequently, when in a group with m ­ embers
belief that “the squeaky wheel gets the grease,” are of different cultures, be sensitive to the inevitable dif-
more likely to voice disagreement or to act differ- ferences in their small group behavior. For example, a
ently from other group members in order to get what member who plays individual roles may be tolerated
they want. in many groups in the United States and in some
cases may even be thought amusing and d ­ ifferent.
That same member playing the same roles in a group
Leadership Style with a more collectivist orientation is likely to be
Each culture has its own rules of preferred and evaluated much more negatively. Multicultural
expected leadership style. In the United States the groups may find it helpful to discuss members’
general and expected style for a group leader is views of group membership and leadership and what
democratic. Our political leaders are elected by a ­constitutes comfortable interaction for them.

Analyzing Video Choices

Charles has been assigned to work with a group of three other students for the service learning
component of his communication class. The other members of the group have already been
working ­together for a week when Charles joins them. He is finding that the other members
consistently ­ignore his cues when he wants to say something. And when he does manage to
say something, no one reacts. He’s determined to change this situation. “Leading in Service
Watch at Learning” focuses on the small group experience and especially on the varied roles that mem-
MyCommunicationLab bers and leaders choose to serve—some, as you’ll see, are productive (and get the task done)
Video: “Leading in Service while others are unproductive; some are likely to lead to satisfaction with the group experience
Learning” while others are likely to create dissatisfaction. Log on to [Link] to view
this video and the choices, and then answer the ­related discussion questions.
 242 PART 2  Interpersonal, Small Group, and Organizational Communication

Summary: Members Study and Review at MyCommunicationLab

and Leaders
This chapter examined the roles of members and leaders of small groups and the principles Listen to the
that govern effective small group interaction. Chapter Summary at
MyCommunicationLab

11.1 Members in Small Group Communication 11.2 Leaders in Small Group Communication
1. A popular classification of small group member roles 8. Among the major myths about leadership are that
divides them into group task roles, group building and leaders are rare, that leaders are born, and that all
maintenance roles, and individual roles. leaders are charismatic.

2. Twelve group task roles are: initiator–contributor, 9. The traits approach to leadership focuses on ­personal
i­nformation seeker, opinion seeker, information characteristics that contribute to leadership; the
giver, opinion giver, elaborator, coordinator, orienter, ­functional approach centers on what the leader
evaluator–critic, energizer, procedural technician, and does (the functions the leader serves); and the
recorder. ­transformational approach focuses on the leader’s
­empowerment of the group members.
3. Seven group building and maintenance roles are:
­ ncourager, harmonizer, compromiser, gatekeeper–­
e 10. In the situational theory of leadership, leadership is
expediter, standard setter, group observer and seen as concerned with both accomplishing the task
­commentator, and follower. and serving the interpersonal needs of the members.
The degree to which either concern is emphasized
4. Eight individual roles are: aggressor, blocker, should depend on the specific group and the unique
r­ecognition seeker, self-confessor, playboy/playgirl, situation.
dominator, help seeker, and special interest pleader.
11. An extension of this situational approach to leadership
5. Interaction process analysis categorizes group identifies four leadership styles: the telling style, the
­ embers’ contributions into four areas: social–­
m selling style, the participating style, and the ­delegating
emotional positive contributions, social–emotional style. The appropriate style to use depends on the
negative contributions, attempted answers, and group’s level of task and relationship maturity.
questions.
12. Among the leader’s functions are getting ready for
6. Membership functions and skills include being group the group interaction, ensuring member satisfaction,
oriented, centering conflict on issues, being ­critically ­activating the group agenda, promoting group ­interaction,
open-minded, avoiding social loafing, ensuring empowering group members, and following up.
­understanding, and being careful not to fall into the
groupthink trap. 11.3 Membership, Leadership, and Culture
7. Groupthink is a way of thinking that develops when 13. The culture in which people are raised will greatly
concurrence seeking in a cohesive group overrides i­nfluence the ways in which members and leaders
­realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. ­interact in small groups.

Study and Review the Flashcards at

MyCommunicationLab
Key Terms
agenda 238 group building and laissez-faire leader 236 social loafing 231
authoritarian leader 236 maintenance roles 229 leadership 233 telling style 238
delegating style 238 group task roles 228 participating style 238 traits approach to
democratic leader 236 groupthink 232 roles 228 leadership 235
emergent leader 234 individual roles 229 selling style 238 transformational approach
functional approach to interaction process situational approach to to leadership 235
leadership 235 analysis 230 leadership 235
 CHAPTER 11 Members and Leaders 243

Working with Members and Leaders

11.1 Combating Groupthink. Groupthink prevents empower her. What are some of your options for
c­ reativity and logical analysis; watch out for it empowering her and thereby getting her to con-
and try to reduce its influence whenever you can. tribute more actively? What might you say?
Practice this by developing specific messages you c. You’re a third-grade teacher. Most of the
might use as a member or a leader of a group in ­ tudents are from the same ethnic–religious
s
which you see the signs of groupthink noted on the group; three, however, are from a very differ-
left and you wish to use the combat tactic noted in ent group. The problem is that these three
the center column. have not been included in the social group-
ings of the ­students; they’re considered out-
siders. As a result, these children stumble
when they have to read in front of the class
Messages to and make a lot of mistakes at the whiteboard
Suspected Accomplish Your (though they ­consistently do well in private).
Problem Combat Tactic Combat Goal You want to ­empower these students. What
Group members Ask for a poll do you say?
assume there’s of opinion; 11.3 Responding to Individual Roles. One major value of
unanimous ­survey the group small group interaction is that everyone profits from
­agreement. ­members. the insights of everyone else; individual roles can
get in the way. For each of the five individual roles,
Members are not Encourage
compose a response or two that you as a leader
expressing their ­members to voice
might make in order to deal with this dysfunctional
doubts about ­disagreement,
role playing. Be careful that your ­responses don’t
the group or its or ask if anyone
alienate the individual or the group.
­decisions. disagrees.
There’s lots of Reward ­members
group pressure who voice Individual, Dysfunctional Responding to Individual
toward agree- ­disagreement, or Roles Roles
ment. voice it yourself. The aggressor:

The recognition seeker or

self-confessor:
11.2 Empowering Others. For each situation below,
i­ndicate what you might say to help empower the The blocker:
other person(s), using such strategies as (a) ­raising
The special interest
the other person’s self-esteem; (b) ­listening actively
pleader:
and supportively; (c) being open, positive, and
­empathic; and (d) avoiding ­verbal aggressiveness or The dominator:
any unfair conflict strategies. As you’ll ­experience,
empowering others, far from reducing your own
power, will actually increase it. 11.4 Group Roles in Interpersonal Relationships. Can
a. Your partner is having lots of difficulties—­ you identify roles that you habitually or frequently
recently he lost his job, received poor grades serve in certain groups? Do you serve these roles
in a night class, and started gaining a lot in your friendship, love, and family relationships as
of weight. At the same time, you’re doing well?
­extremely well. What are some of the things you 11.5 Groupthink. Have you ever been in a group when
can do or say that might help bring back your groupthink was operating? If so, what were its
partner’s confidence? symptoms? What effect did groupthink have on the
b. You’re managing four college interns who are process and conclusions of the group?
r­edesigning your company’s website—three 11.6 Leadership Style. How would you characterize the
men and one woman. The men are extremely leadership style of one of your local politicians,
­supportive of one another and regularly religious leaders, college instructors, or talk show
­contribute ideas. Although equally competent, hosts? How would you characterize your own
the woman doesn’t contribute; she seems to ­leadership style? For example, are you usually
lack confidence. But the objective of this rede- more concerned with people or with tasks? Are
sign is to increase the number of female visi- you more likely to be a laissez-faire, democratic, or
tors, so you really need her input and want to authoritarian leader? Most important, why?