Faculty of Mathematics and Statistics
Ton Duc Thang University
CHAPTER 2: PRODUCING DATA
Lý Sal
Email:lysal@[Link]
(Based on the slides of Ly Sel and Truong Buu Chau)
January 5, 2025
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Content
1 Introduction
Anecdotal data
Available data
Sample surveys and experiments
Sample surveys and experiments
2 Design of Experiments
Comparative experiments
Randomization
Randomized comparative experiments
Block designs
Matched pairs designs
3 Sampling design
Simple random samples
Stratified samples
Multistage samples
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Anecdotal data
Anecdotal evidence ("bằng chứng giai thoại")
Anecdotal evidence is based on haphazardly selected individual cases, which often
come to our attention because they are striking in some way. These cases need
not be representative of any larger group of cases.
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Anecdotal data
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Anecdotal data
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Available data
Available data
Available data are data that were produced in the past for some other purpose but
that may help answer a present question.
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Sample surveys and experiments
A sample survey collects information about a population by selecting and
measuring a sample from the population. The goal is a picture of the population,
disturbed as little as possible by the act of gathering information. Sample surveys
are one kind of observational study.
Observation versus experiment
1 In an observational study (nghiên cứu quan sát) we observe individuals and
measure variables of interest but do not attempt to influence the responses.
2 In an experiment (thí nghiệm) we deliberately impose some treatment on
individuals and we observe their responses.
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Sample surveys and experiments
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Design of Experiments
A study is an experiment when we actually do something to people, animals, or
objects in order to observe the response.
Experimental units, subjects, treatment
The individuals on which the experiment is done are the experimental units (đơn
vị thí nghiệm). When the units are human beings, they are called subjects (đối
tượng). A specific experimental condition applied to the units is called a
treatment (liệu pháp).
Factors, level of factor
The explanatory variables in an experiment are often called factors (yếu tố).
Many experiments study the joint effects of several factors. In such an
experiment, each treatment is formed by combining a specific value (often
called a level) of each of the factors.
A placebo is a dummy treatment (dummy pill) that creates a situation so
the experimenter can see what the effect of the subject will be just by being
treated.
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Design of Experiments
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Design of Experiments
Combining the levels of the two factors forms six treatments.
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Comparative experiments
Treatment −→ Observe response
Control group
The group of subjects who received a sham treatment is called a control group
(nhóm kiểm soát).
Bias
The design of a study is biased if it systematically favors certain outcomes.
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Randomization
Randomization
The use of chance to divide experimental units into groups is called randomization.
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Randomized comparative experiments
The design of an experiment first describes the response variable or variables, the
factors (explanatory variables), and the layout of the treatments, with comparison
as the leading principle.
Principal of experimental design
The basic principles of statistical design of experiments are
1 Comparative two or more treatments. This will control the effects of lurking
variables on the response.
2 Randomize—use impersonal chance to assign experimental units to
treatments.
3 Repeat each treatment on many units to reduce chance variation in the
results.
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Randomized comparative experiments
Statistical significance
An observed effect so large that it would rarely occur by chance is called
statistically significance.
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Randomized comparative experiments
Completely randomized design
When all experimental units are allocated at random among all treatments, the
experimental design is completely randomized.
How to randomize?
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Cautions about experimentation
Double-blind
Double-blind (giấu kín kép): neither the subjects themselves nor the personnel
who worked with them knew which treatment any subject had received. The
double-blind method avoids unconscious bias.
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Cautions about experimentation
Lack of realism
The most serious potential weakness of experiments is lack of realism. The
subjects or treatments or setting of an experiment may not realistically duplicate
the conditions we really want to study.
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Block designs
Block design
A block is a group of experimental units or subjects that are known before the
experiment to be similar in some way that is expected to affect the response to
the treatments. In a block design, the random assignment of units to treatments
is carried out separately within each block.
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Block designs
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Matched pairs designs
Matched pairs designs
A matched pairs design is a special case of a randomized block design. It can be
used when the experiment has only two treatment conditions; and subjects can be
grouped into pairs, based on some blocking variable. Then, within each pair,
subjects are randomly assigned to different treatments.
Example 3.17:
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Sampling design
Population and sample
The entire group of individuals that we want information about is called the
population.
A sample is a part of the population that we actually examine in order to
gather information.
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Sampling design
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Simple random samples
Simple random sample (Mẫu ngẫu nhiên đơn giản)
A simple random sample (SRS) of size n consists of n individuals from the
population chosen in such a way that every set of n individuals has an equal
chance to be the sample actually selected.
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Stratified samples
Stratified random sample (Mẫu phân tầng)
To select a stratified random sample, first divide the population into groups of
similar individuals, called strata. Then choose a separate SRS in each stratum and
combine these SRSs to form the full sample.
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Multistage samples
Multistage samples (Mẫu nhiều giai đoạn)
Multistage samples select successively smaller groups within the population in
stages, resulting in a sample consisting of clusters of individuals. Each stage may
employ an SRS, a stratified sample, or another type of sample.
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