GENERAL PHYSICS PRACTICAL I AND II

LESSON ONE
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
In physics, Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity to a standard quantity,
assigning a numerical value and a unit to it. While, Measurement techniques are methods and tools
used to quantify the magnitude of physical quantities.
These techniques are essential in various scientific, industrial, and everyday applications. Here are
some common measuring techniques:
1. Direct Measurement: This involves directly measuring a physical quantity using a suitable
measuring instrument or device. For example, using a ruler to measure the length of an object,
using a thermometer to measure temperature, or using a weighing scale to measure mass.
2. Indirect Measurement: In some cases, direct measurement may not be possible or practical.
Indirect measurement involves using other measurable quantities and mathematical relationships
to determine the desired quantity. For instance, using the time taken for an object to fall to calculate
its height based on gravitational acceleration.
3. Timing Techniques: Timing techniques involve measuring the duration or time interval of an
event. This can be done using devices such as stopwatches, digital timers, or atomic clocks.
4. Electrical Measurement: Electrical measurement techniques are used to measure electrical
quantities such as voltage, current, resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Instruments like
multimeters, oscilloscopes, and voltmeters are commonly used for electrical measurements.
5. Optical Measurement: Optical measurement techniques utilize light and optics to measure various
quantities. This includes methods such as using lasers and interferometers for distance
measurements, spectrometers for analyzing light spectra, and photodetectors for measuring light
intensity.
6. Pressure Measurement: Pressure measurement techniques are employed to determine the
pressure of gases, liquids, or solids. Instruments like pressure gauges, manometers, and pressure
transducers are used for this purpose.
7. Imaging Techniques: Imaging techniques are used to visualize and measure the characteristics of
objects or phenomena. Examples include medical imaging techniques like X-ray, MRI, and
ultrasound, as well as microscopy techniques like optical microscopy and electron microscopy.
Instruments used in Measurements
Instruments refer to tools, devices, or equipment designed to measure, observe, or manipulate
physical quantities, properties, or phenomena. They are used in various fields such as science,
engineering, medicine, industry, and research to gather data, make precise measurements, or
perform specific tasks. Instruments can range from simple handheld tools to complex and

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sophisticated systems, depending on the intended application. They are essential for gathering
accurate and reliable information, conducting experiments, monitoring processes, and making
informed decisions based on the obtained measurements. The most common instruments for
measurement include:
1. Ruler/Measuring Tape: Used to measure lengths and distances in everyday objects. It provides a
basic method for linear measurements.
2. Vernier Caliper: A precise instrument for measuring lengths, diameters, and thicknesses with high
accuracy. It consists of a main scale and a sliding Vernier scale for reading fine measurements.
3. Micrometer Screw Gauge: A highly accurate instrument for measuring small lengths and
diameters. It uses a calibrated screw mechanism to provide precise measurements.
4. Stopwatch/Timer: Used to measure time intervals accurately. It is commonly used in experiments
that involve timing events, such as motion experiments or reaction time measurements.
5. Thermometer: Measures temperature using various principles, such as the expansion of liquids
(mercury or alcohol) or electrical resistance (digital thermometers). Different types of
thermometers are used for specific temperature ranges and applications.
6. Ammeter: Measures electric current flowing through a circuit. It is connected in series within the
circuit and can measure both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).
7. Voltmeter: Measures the electric potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit. It
is connected in parallel across the component or points where voltage is to be measured.
8. Oscilloscope: Used to visualize and measure electrical waveforms. It displays voltage signals
graphically on a screen, enabling measurements of amplitude, frequency, and time intervals.
9. Spectrophotometer: Measures the intensity of light at different wavelengths. It is widely used in
spectroscopy to analyze the absorption or emission properties of substances.
10. Protractor/Goniometer: Instruments used to measure angles. They are commonly used in
geometry or when studying the direction of forces or angles of reflection or refraction.
Some Basic Measurements Instruments
1. The Meter Rule: A meter rule is one instrument used for measuring lengths with 0.1 cm
as the smallest graduation on a meter rule. Measurements can be accurately made to half
of this smallest graduation. A meter rule of length 1mm is equal to 100 centimeter (cm).
To measure the length of a pencil using a meter rule, place meter rule with its marking
close to the object. Let PQ be a pencil. The end P of the pencil coincides with the zero
marks on the ruler. The end Q of the pencil is read by keeping the eye at the position “B”
vertically above the end Q. so the length of the pencil is 4.3 cm.

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 2. The Vernier Caliper: A device that is used to measure very small distances is called the
Vernier Caliper this is a device that is used to measure distances accurate to 0.1 mm. The
main use of the vernier caliper is to measure the internal and external diameters of an
object. The word caliper means any instrument with two jaws which is used to determine
the diameters of objects. The principle of the vernier caliper is that when two scales or
divisions slightly different in size are used, then the difference between them is used to
increase the accuracy measurement.

VERNIER CALIPER (SCALE)

The parts of a Vernier Caliper and their functions:
1. Main Scale: The main scale is a graduated scale that is used to measure the overall length of an
object. This help to measure length correct up to 1 mm.
2. Vernier Scale: The vernier scale is a second scale that is used to measure small increments of
length. This help to measure length correct up to 0.1 mm.
3. Strip: This help to measure depth of a beaker or a bottle or an object.
4. Inside Jaws: This is used to measure the Internal diameter of a hollow cylinder or pipe
5. Outside Jaws: This is used to measure length of a rod, diameter of sphere, external diameter of a
hollow cylinder.
6. Movable Jaw: The movable jaw is the movable jaw of the Vernier Caliper. It is used to measure
the inside of an object.
7. Zero adjustment screw: The zero adjustment screw is used to ensure that the Vernier Caliper is
properly zeroed before taking a measurement.
8. Locking Screw: The locking screw is used to secure the movable jaw in place after taking a
measurement.
9. Lower Jaws: The jaws of the vernier caliper, a key feature, include a fixed jaw connected to the
main scale and a movable jaw connected to the vernier scale. Designed for a secure grip, the lower
jaw primarily measures outer dimensions like diameter, width, and length.

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 10. Upper Jaws: Smaller than the lower jaws, the upper jaws, attached to the top of the vernier scale,
include a fixed and a movable part. Primarily used for measuring inner dimensions, the upper jaws
are opened to touch the edges of objects like hollow pipes and jars for accurate readings.
How to Read a Vernier Caliper
1. Check for Zero Error: Close the caliper jaws and check if the zero mark on the Vernier scale
aligns with the zero on the main scale. If not, the difference is the zero error, which must be added
to or subtracted from your final reading as shown in the pictures below.
2. Open the jaws and place the object to be measured between them. Close jaws until the object is
firmly gripped.
3. Read the Main Scale: Identify the last whole millimeter (or inch) mark that appears to the left of
the zero on the sliding Vernier scale.
4. Read the Vernier Scale: Find the single mark on the Vernier scale that perfectly aligns with a mark
on the main scale.
5. Calculate the Vernier Reading: Multiply the number of the aligned Vernier mark by the least
count of the Vernier caliper (e.g., if the least count is 0.01 cm, you multiply the Vernier mark by
0.01).
6. Find the Total Measurement: Add the main scale reading to the calculated Vernier scale reading.

Principles of Reading Vernier Caliper

A scale cannot measure objects which are smaller than 1mm but a vernier caliper can measure
objects up to 1mm. As already know that vernier caliper has two scales the main scale and the
vernier scale together this arrangement is used to measure very small lengths like 0.1mm.

From the figure above, the main scale has the least count of 1mm and vernier scale has the least
count of 0.9mm. So therefore 10 unit of the main scale is 1cm whereas 10 unit of vernier scale is
0.9mm. The unit of the vernier scale is 9mm. So this difference between the main scale and vernier
scale (1 – 0.9 = 0.1mm) which is 0.1mm is the working principle of vernier caliper.
Note that: Before placing any object in Vernier Caliper for measurement check for adjust the Jaws
to get the Zero Error written down first. What is Zero Error?
Zero Error – Zero error in the vernier caliper is a mathematical error obtain when the zero mark
of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of the main scale. In other words, if the zero

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mark on the vernier scale doesn’t coincide with the zero mark on the main scale, then the error that
occurs is called Zero Error. They are basically 2 types Zero Errors: Positive and Negative Zero
Errors. But when they both coincide it means “No Error”.
 No Error – In no zero error, when we bring two jaws together. You will see zero of the Main scale
is coinciding with the zero of the vernier scale.

 Positive Error – In positive zero error, when the jaws are joined together. You will see, the zero of
vernier scale is ahead or at the right side of main scale zero.

From the above image, the Zero Error is positive while the Coinciding VS division = 3 (i.e.: both MS and
VS match at point 3 of VS).
To calculate the Zero Error in this case we have:
Zero Error = Coinciding VSD * Least Count = 3 * 0.01cm = 0.03cm
 Negative Error – In negative zero error, we will bring the two jaws together. Here you can see
zero of vernier scale is the back side of main scale zero. Or to the left of main scale zero.

From the above image, the Zero Error is negative while the Coinciding VS division = 8
To calculate the Difference and the Zero Error in this case we have:
Difference = Total VSD – Coinciding Div. point = 10 – 8 = 2
In this case, Zero Error = Difference * Least Count = 2 * 0.01cm = -0.02cm (The minus sign indicates the
negative in Vernier Caliper)
Formula for Measuring Vernier Caliper
For a Vernier Caliper measurement:
Measurement = Main Scale Reading(MSC) + (Vernier Scale Coincidence ∗ Least Count(LC)) − Zero Error
Smallest Main Scale Reading
Least Count =
number of Vernier Scale Divisions
Total Reading = Main Scale Reading(MSR) + (Vernier Scale Reading(VSR) ∗ Least Count(LC))
Corrected or Actual Reading = Total Reading − Zero Error

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Examples of Vernier Scale Readings:

Figure1

From Diagram (1): Figure 2

Main Scale Reading = 13mm(Main scale marks to left of VS Zero mark)

Vernier Scale Reading = 21 divisions
Least Count = 0.02mm
Total Reading = MSR + (VSC * LC) = 13mm + (21 * 0.02) = 13mm + 0.42mm = 13.42mm

From Diagram (2):

Main Scale Reading = 19mm(Main marks to left of VS Zero mark)
Vernier Scale Reading = 32 divisions
Least Count = 0.02mm
Total Reading = MSR + (VSC * LC) = 19mm + (32 * 0.02) = 19mm + 0.64mm = 19.64mm

Example1: Diameter of a sheet ball is measured using a Vernier Calipers which has divisions of
0.1mm on its main scale(MS) and 10 divisions of its vernier scale (VS) match 9 divisions on the
main scale with the zero error given as to be -0.03 cm.. Three of such measurements for a ball were
taken as follows:
No. of Vernier Scale
Main Scale
Reading (VS)
Readings Reading (in cm)
divisions
1 0.5 8
2 0.5 4
3 0.5 6
What is the mean corrected diameter?

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Solution:
MSD = 0.1 cm
VSD = 9/10 * 0.1 = 0.09 cm
Least Count = MSD – VSD = 0.1 – 0.09 = 0.01 cm
Total reading = Main Scale Reading + Vernier Coincidence * Least Count
1st Reading = 0.5 + 8 * -0.01 = 0.58 cm
2nd reading = 0.5 + 4 * -0.01 = 0.54 cm
3rd reading = 0.5 + 6 * -0.01 = 0.56 cm
Therefore, Average reading = (0.58 + 0.54 + 0.56)/3 = 0.56 cm
Corrected reading = Avg. Reading – Zero Error = 0.56 – (-0.03) = 0.56 + 0.03 = 0.59 cm

Example2: The diameter of a cylinder is measured using Vernier calipers with no zero error. It is
found that the zero of the vernier scale lies between 5.10 cm and 5.15 cm of the main scale. The
vernier scale division equivalent to 2.45 cm coincides with one of the main scale divisions at
exactly 24th division. What is the diameter of the cylinder?
Solution:
Smallest main scale division = 5.15 cm – 5.10 cm = 0.05 cm
Main scale reading = 5.10 cm (comes just before the zero of the Vernier scale)
Vernier coincidence = 24
Least Count = 0.05 – 2.45/50 = 0.05 – 0.049 = 0.001 cm
Diameter = MS reading + VS coincidence point * Least Count = 5.10 + 24 * 0.001 = 5.124 cm

Other Exercises: Write down the Actual Readings and the Zero Errors in the Diagrams below.

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3. The Micrometer ScrewGauge: The micrometer is an improvement over the measurement
of the vernier caliper scale. The accuracy of vernier caliper remains to be 0.02 mm, but
most of the engineering precision work demands greater accuracy with sensitivity for
which an instrument having both these should be used. The reading accuracy of this
instrument is as low as 0.001 cm. The instrument has a main scale MS, and a circular
Vernier scale VS.

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 MICROMETER SCREWGUAGE

Functions of the Parts of Screw Gauge

A Screw Gauge is shown here and its main parts are described below.
1. C-Frame: It’s a c shaped frame as identified in the picture, is a rigid part that has both holding
points for a job or object to be measured. Its size depends on micrometer measuring range so size
of c frame increases as range expands to bigger. Its main function is to provide basic structure of a
micrometer in which stationary anvil located at one end and moveable spindle slides inward or
outward trough other end of c frame.
2. Zero adjust screw: It’s a screw located back end of anvil shown in figure. As name shows it is to
correct or adjust the zero error of micrometer if there is some error found before the measurement
during test.
3. Anvil: As discussed above it is a small stationary cylindrical part of micrometer located in far end
of c-frame and acts as one holding point for measuring objects. So we can say it’s a one of rigid
measuring and holding point of micrometer.
4. Spindle: A cylindrical long part which is mounted through all other parts sleeve, lock nut and
thimble. It is moveable part and has a connection with ratchet as we rotate the ratchet clockwise or
counter clockwise the spindle slides out or inward to adjust it with compare to measuring object
size.
5. Anvil Face and Spindle Face: Faces of both anvil and spindle which are opposite to each other
are the measuring points of micrometer and hold the measuring object collectively.
6. Lock nut: As we know the mechanism of micrometer based on precision ground threads of spindle
so the lock nut works as stationary nut for this mechanism, so rotation of this mechanism into lock
nut controls the spindle movement.
7. Sleeve: It’s a barrel type cylindrical part which mounted on spindle and is main scale of micrometer
because main scale is engraved on the sleeve. Thimble rotates around that sleeve and spindle. Its
main function is indication of reading in millimeter in case of imperial micrometer.
8. Thimble: Thimble is also mounted on spindle and a scale is engraved around it perimeter of
thimble. Scale of thimble is to show the measurement value in fraction.

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 9. Ratchet: It’s a knurled thumb gripe to rotate the spindle into desired direction for measuring
process, provided with ratchet action to avoid over tightening of micrometer across the measuring
object and also ensures equal pressure force of each measurement.
How to Read a Micrometer Screw Gauge
1. Check for Zero Error: Close the micrometer and check if the zero mark on the thimble aligns
with the center line on the sleeve. To do this close the jaw of the instrument with the ratchet. Read
the number of division on the thimble that coincides with the horizontal line on the sleeve.
2. Place the object to be measured between the jaws of the micrometer and close them using the ratchet
until the object is firmly gripped by the jaws.
3. Read the Main Scale (Sleeve Scale): Observe the main scale on the sleeve and record the last
visible millimeter or half-millimeter mark to the left of the thimble's zero mark.
4. Read the Thimble Scale: Find the mark on the rotating thimble that aligns with the center line on
the sleeve.
5. Calculate the Thimble Reading: Multiply the number of the aligned thimble mark by the
micrometer's least count (e.g., if the least count is 0.01 mm, multiply by 0.01).
6. Find the Total Measurement: Add the main scale reading to the calculated thimble reading.

Screw Gauge Formula

There are two parameters used in every screw gauge such as pitch and least count of a screw gauge.
1. Pitch: The pitch of the screw gauge is defined as the distance moved by the spindle per
revolution which is measured by moving the head scale over the pitch scale in order to
complete one full rotation.
distance moved by a srew
Pitch of Screw Guage =
number of rotations given
2. Least Count: The least count of the screw is defined as the distance moved by the tip of
the screw when turned through one division of the head scale.
pitch
Least Count of the Screw Guage =
total number of divisions on the circular scale
1mm
Least Count of the Screw Guage = = 0.01mm
100
Total Reading = Main Scale Reading(MSR) + (𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝐶𝑆𝑅) ∗ 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡(𝐿𝐶))
Corrected or Actual Reading = Total Reading − Zero Error
Examples of Micrometer Readings:
As we know that the screw thread is rotated by the thimble which indicates the one-sided revolution
and the whole revolutions being counted on the barrel of the instrument.

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 Figure 4
Figure 3
For Diagram (4) above:
Sleeve Reading = 12.00mm(Top last mark) + 0.50mm(bottom last mark) = 12.50mm
Thimble Reading = 0.16mm (coinciding point with Sleeve mark)
Total Measurement = Sleeve Reading + Thimble Reading = 12.50mm + 0.16mm = 12.66mm

What is the Reading of the following Micrometer ScrewGuages:

Figure 5 Figure 6

Figure 7
Considering Diagram (5) above:
The main scale meter is in descending order and for that reason the reading is said to be,
Main Scale Reading(MSR) = 4mm(the last Top mark) + 0.50mm(the last Bottom mark) = 4.50mm
Thimble or Circular Reading = 10(coinciding circular mark) * LC(0.01) = 0.10mm
Total Reading = MSR + Thimble Reading = 4.50mm + 0.10mm = 4.60mm

Considering Diagram (6) above:

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Main Scale Reading(MSR) = 22mm(the last Top mark) + 0mm(the last Bottom mark) = 22.0mm
Thimble or Circular Reading = 33(coinciding circular mark) * LC(0.01) = 0.33mm
Total Reading = MSR + Thimble Reading = 22.0mm + 0.33mm = 22.33mm

Considering Diagram (7) above:

Main Scale Reading(MSR) = 3mm(the last Top mark) + 0.25mm(the last Bottom mark) = 3.25mm
Thimble or Circular Reading = 13(coinciding circular mark) * LC(0.01) = 0.13mm
Total Reading = MSR + Thimble Reading = 3.25mm + 0.13mm = 3.38mm

Example1: The pitch of a screw gauge is 1mm and there are 100 division on the circular scale.
A student measures the diameter of a wire using the screw gauge and he gets the main scale reading
as 5 mm and circular divisions as 25. If the screw gauge has a positive zero error of 0.03, what is
the correct value of diameter?
Solution:
Least Count = 0.01 mm as above
Initial reading = Main Scale Reading(MSR) + Circular Reading(CR) * Least Count(LC)
Initial reading = 5 + 25 * 0.01 = 5.25 mm
Actual reading = Initial Reading – Zero Error = (5.25 – 0.03)mm = 5.22 mm

Example2: The accompanying diagram represents a screw gauge. The circular scale is divided
into 50 divisions and the linear scale is divided into millimeters. If the screw advanced by 1mm
when the circular scale makes 2 complete revolutions, what is the least count and the total reading
of the instrument?
To calculate the reading of the instrument use the formula above
distance moved by a screw
Pitch of Screw Guage = number of rotations given
= ½ = 0.5mm

The least count is:

pitch 0.5
Least Count of the Screw Guage = = = 0.01𝑚𝑚
total number of divisions on the circular scale 50
The reading of a screw gauge given that LSR = 3mm and CSR = 32 is:
Reading = LSR + (LC ∗ CSR) = 3 + (0.01 ∗ 32) = 3 + 0.32 = 3.32𝑚𝑚
Actual Reading = Reading + Pitch = 3.32 + 0.5 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟐𝐦𝐦

Other Exercises are: What are the Total Measurements of the Micrometer Scales below?

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 LESSON TWO
EXPERIMENTS ON LIGHT AND SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Introduction
In this section, we are going to discuss the experiments that will involve plotting of graphs and
evaluation of certain results.
1. Measurement of Focal Length of Converging Lens
When light energy is incident on a surface, some may be reflected, some may be transmitted and
some may be absorbed. The fraction of each depend on the nature of the surface. Mirrored surfaces
and white substances reflect most of the incident light energy. Transparent substances like Glass
Block and Lenses, transmit most of the light while black surface absorb much light energy.
Rays of Light
The straight line or path between two specific points in a light medium by which light travel is
known as a Light Ray. Light rays a denoted by an arrow line that sets the direction of light. It is a
vector quantity. The set of light rays is known as a Light Beam. There are three types of light
beams such as: Parallel, Convergent, and Divergent Light Beams
1. Parallel Light Beam:- If each and every light rays in a light beam are parallel to each other
then it is known as a Parallel light beam.
2. Convergent Light Beam:- If light rays of a light beam coming from different directions
and meet at a point then it is called Convergent light beam.
3. Divergent Light Beam:- If light ray of a light beam coming from single point and travel
in a different direction, then it is called a Divergent light beam.

Perform experiment to calculate the focal length of a concave or convergent lens using the
following apparatus: Converging Lens, Lamp-Box with crosswire, meter rule, retort stand and
screen.

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 u v
Distance between the Distance between the
Figure 8 Object & the Lens Lens & the Image

Setting Up Procedure or Steps Figure 9

1. Place the lamp-box well outside the approximate focal length as shown in diagram 9 above.
2. Move the screen until a clear inverted image of the crosswire is obtained.
3. Measure the distance u from the crosswire to the lens, using the meter stick or rule.
4. Measure the distance v from the screen to the lens.
1 1 1
5. Calculate the focal length of the lens using = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
6. Repeat this procedure for different values of u.
7. Calculate f each time and then find the average value.
This experiment can be conducted for one or more time and in either of the case distance between
the lens and the object usually x or u is measured and recorded while distance between the lens
and screen after obtaining the sharp image on the screen is measured and recorded as y or v in
tabular form.

Example1: For a Single Reading – Place the converging lens provided at a distance x = 20cm
from illuminated object. Place the screen provided on the other side of the lens and move it until a
sharp image of the object is focused on the screen. Measure and record the distance y of the image
from the lens. Evaluate 𝑥 −1 and 𝑦 −1
Repeat the experiment for 𝑥 = 25, 30, 35, 40, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 45 𝑐𝑚. In each case, obtain the corresponding values
of 𝑦, 𝑥 −1 and 𝑦 −1 . Tabulate your readings.

x (in cm) y (in cm) x-1 (in cm-1) y-1 (in cm-1)
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00

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 Plot the graph of 𝑦 −1 against 𝑥 −1, starting both axes from the origin (0,0). Determine the
slope of the graph and the intercept I1 and I2 on the 𝑥 −1 and 𝑦 −1 axes respectively.
(I1 + I2 )
Evaluate I = and state two precautions you took to obtain the accurate results.
2

Example2: For Repeated Readings – To determine the focal length of a converging lens, a student
used the same procedure above to perform an experiment in the laboratory and obtain the following
readings:
V(in cm) 𝑽 𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
S/No. U(in cm)
V1 V2
𝐕(𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐧) =
𝟐
(in cm) (cm-1) (cm-1)
𝐔 𝐕
1. 20.0 60.0 60.0
2. 25.0 37.4 37.5
3. 30.0 30.1 29.0
4. 35.0 26.2 26.3
𝟏 𝟏
Plot the graph of on vertical axis and in horizontal axis. Determine the horizontal and
𝐕 𝐔
2
vertical intercept as M1 and M2 respectively. Evaluate M = (I and state two
1 + I2 )
precautions you took to obtain the accurate results.

2. Measurement of Simple Harmonic Motion(Using Pendulum)

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of periodic, back-and-forth oscillation where the net
force acting on an object is directly proportional to its displacement from an equilibrium point and
always points toward that equilibrium point. Key characteristics include a constant amplitude (i,e.
maximum displacement) and period (i.e. the time for one full cycle), with the velocity being
maximum at the equilibrium position and zero at the extreme points. Common examples are a
Mass on a Spring or a Pendulum.
Key Characteristics
1. Restoring Force: The force that brings an object back to its equilibrium position is called
the Restoring Force. In SHM, this force is always proportional to the displacement and acts
in the opposite direction.
2. Equilibrium Position: This is the point where there is no net force on the object, and it
would remain at rest if not disturbed.
3. Amplitude (A): The maximum distance the object moves from its equilibrium position.
4. Period (T): The time it takes for the object to complete one full cycle of motion.
5. Frequency (f): The number of oscillations per unit time, which is the reciprocal of the
1
period (i.e. 𝑓 = 𝑇).

6. Acceleration: The acceleration of the object is greatest at the extreme displacements and
is zero at the equilibrium position.

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 7. Velocity: The velocity of the object is zero at the extreme displacements (i.e. @ the Turning
points) and maximum at the equilibrium position.
Simple Pendulum Experiment
An ideal pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by a weightless, inextensible string,
oscillating through a very small angle in vacuum. It can be shown that the period, T, depends only
on the length, and the acceleration due to gravity as shown in diagram 10 and 11.

Timer

Figure 10 Figure 11

Procedure for Setting-Up Pendulum

1. Place the thread of the pendulum between two halves of a cork or between two coins and
clamp to a stand.
2. Set the length of the thread at one meter from the bottom of the cork or coins to the center
of the bob.
3. Set the pendulum swinging through a small angle (<10°). Measure the time t for thirty
complete oscillations.
4. Divide this time t by thirty to get the periodic time T.
5. Repeat for different lengths of the pendulum.
6. Draw a graph of T2 against length l and use the slope to calculate a value for g.
Note that:
1. In determining the acceleration due to gravity g, the materials and apparatus are needed: a
simple pendulum, a meter ruler, a stop watch, a locating pin and a cork cut vertically in the
middle.
2. Theory: If l is the oscillating length and T is the period of oscillation, of the simple
4𝜋2
pendulum, then: 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔𝑙 this expression can also be transform as: 𝑇2 = (
𝑔
)𝑙 . The
4𝜋 2
Gradient of the graph T2 against l is said to be: 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑔
, by making g subject of
4𝜋2
the formula: g = (𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)

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Example1: In an experiment, it was required to determine the acceleration due to gravity g using
a pendulum bob and the following values of height(h) and time(t) for 20 oscillations where
recorded as shown below. Copy and complete the table.
𝒕
h (in m) t (in s) 𝐓= (in s-1) T2(s2)
𝟐𝟎
0.10 44.5
0.20 43.5
0.30 41.0
0.40 39.0
0.50 36.5
0.60 34.5
 Plot the graph of 𝑇 2 against ℎ and find the Slope S of the graph.
−42𝜋2
 Calculate the acceleration due to gravity, g, from the expression 𝑆 = .
𝑔
 State two precautions.

Example2: The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1,2 sec in a place where g is 9.8m/s2.
How long is the bob below the rigid point.
Given that: period T = 1.2 s and g = 9.8 m/s2
To find the length of pendulum l we have.
𝑙 4𝜋 2 𝑇2𝑔
If 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 and 𝑇 2 = ( ) 𝑙; then, 𝑙 = (4𝜋2 ). Now fill in the values to obtain the length.
𝑔

For other Measurement Instruments and their Uses, check the Second Note.

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 LESSON THREE
MEASUREMENT AND ERROR ANALYSIS(The Uncertainty of Measurements)
Introduction
Some numerical statements are exact: Mary has 3 brothers, and 2 + 2 = 4. However, all
measurements have some degree of uncertainty that may come from a variety of sources. The
process of evaluating the uncertainty associated with a measurement result is often called
Uncertainty Analysis or Error Analysis. The complete statement of a measured value should
include an estimate of the level of confidence associated with the value. Properly reporting an
experimental result along with its uncertainty allows other people to make judgments about the
quality of the experiment, and it facilitates meaningful comparisons with other similar values or a
theoretical prediction.

Without an uncertainty estimate, it is impossible to answer the basic scientific question: "Does my
result agree with a theoretical prediction or results from other experiments?" This question is
fundamental for deciding if a scientific hypothesis is confirmed or refuted. When we make a
measurement, we generally assume that some exact or true value exists based on how we define
what is being measured. As we make measurements by different methods, or even when making
multiple measurements using the same method, we may obtain slightly different results. So how
do we report our findings for our best estimate of this elusive true value? The most common way
to show the range of values that we believe includes the true value is:
Measurement = (Best Estimate ± Uncertainty) units
Let's take an example. Suppose you want to find the mass of a gold ring that you would like to sell
to a friend. You do not want to jeopardize your friendship, so you want to get an accurate mass of
the ring in order to charge a fair market price. You estimate the mass to be between 10 and 20
grams from how heavy it feels in your hand, but this is not a very precise estimate. After some
searching, you find an electronic balance that gives a mass reading of 17.43 grams. While this
measurement is much more precise than the original estimate, how do you know that it is accurate,
and how confident are you that this measurement represents the true value of the ring's mass? Since
the digital display of the balance is limited to 2 decimal places, you could report the mass as:
m = 17.43 ± 0.01 g.

Suppose you use the same electronic balance and obtain several more readings: 17.46 g, 17.42 g,
17.44 g, so that the average mass appears to be in the range of

17.44 ± 0.02 g.

By now you may feel confident that you know the mass of this ring to the nearest hundredth of a
gram, but how do you know that the true value definitely lies between 17.43 g and 17.45 g? Since
you want to be honest, you decide to use another balance that gives a reading of 17.22 g. This
value is clearly below the range of values found on the first balance, and under normal
circumstances, you might not care, but you want to be fair to your friend. So what do you do now?
The answer lies in knowing something about the accuracy of each instrument. To help answer
these questions, we should first define the terms accuracy and precision:

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 1. Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true or accepted
value. Measurement error is the amount of inaccuracy.
2. Precision is a measure of how well a result can be determined (without reference to a
theoretical or true value). It is the degree of consistency and agreement among independent
measurements of the same quantity; also the reliability or reproducibility of the result.

Note that: The uncertainty estimate associated with a measurement should account for both the
accuracy and precision of the measurement.

Types of Errors
Measurement errors may be classified as either random or systematic, depending on how the
measurement was obtained (i.e. an instrument could cause a random error in one situation and a
systematic error in another).

1. Random Errors:- These are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured
data due to the precision limitations of the measurement device. Random errors can be
evaluated through statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a large number
of observations (see standard error).
2. Systematic Errors:- These are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same
direction. These errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically. If a
systematic error is identified when calibrating against a standard, applying a correction or
correction factor to compensate for the effect can reduce the bias. Unlike random errors,
systematic errors cannot be detected or reduced by increasing the number of observations.

When making careful measurements, it is useful to know the types of errors that may occur since
the goal is to reduce as many sources of error as possible and to keep track of those errors that we
cannot eliminate. Common sources of error in physics laboratory experiments:

1. Incomplete definition (may be systematic or random):- One reason that it is impossible to

make exact measurements is that the measurement is not always clearly defined. For
example, if two different people measure the length of the same string, they would probably
get different results because each person may stretch the string with a different tension.
2. Failure to account for a factor (usually systematic):- The most challenging part of
designing an experiment is trying to control or account for all possible factors except the
one independent variable that is being analyzed. For instance, you may inadvertently ignore
air resistance when measuring free-fall acceleration, or you may fail to account for the
effect of the Earth's magnetic field when measuring the field near a small magnet. The best
way to account for these sources of error is to brainstorm with your peers about all the
factors that could possibly affect your result which should be done before performing the
experiment. Sometimes a correction can be applied to a result after taking data to account
for an error that was not detected earlier.
3. Environmental factors (systematic or random):- Be aware of errors introduced by your
immediate working environment. You may need to take account for or protect your
experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature, and electronic noise or other
effects from nearby apparatus.
4. Calibration (systematic):- Whenever possible, the calibration of an instrument should be
checked before taking data. If a calibration standard is not available, the accuracy of the
instrument should be checked by comparing with another instrument that is at least as
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 precise, or by consulting the technical data provided by the manufacturer. Calibration errors
are usually linear, so that larger values result in greater absolute errors.
5. Zero Offset (systematic):- When making a measurement with a micrometer caliper,
electronic balance, or electrical meter, always check the zero reading first. Re-zero the
instrument if possible, or at least measure and record the zero offset so that readings can
be corrected later. It is also a good idea to check the zero reading throughout the
experiment. Failure to zero a device will result in a constant error that is more significant
for smaller measured values than for larger ones.
6. Physical variations (random):- It is always wise to obtain multiple measurements over the
widest range possible. Doing so often reveals variations that might otherwise go
undetected. These variations may call for closer examination, or they may be combined to
find an average value.
7. Parallax (systematic or random):- This error can occur whenever there is some distance
between the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a measurement. If the
observer's eye is not squarely aligned with the pointer and scale, the reading may be too
high or low (some analog meters have mirrors to help with this alignment).
8. Instrument drift (systematic):- Most electronic instruments have readings that drift over
time. The amount of drift is generally not a concern, but occasionally this source of error
can be significant.

Estimating Experimental Uncertainty for a Single Measurement

Any measurement you make will have some uncertainty associated with it, no matter the precision
of your measuring tool. So how do you determine and report this uncertainty?
The uncertainty of a single measurement is limited by the precision and accuracy of the measuring
instrument, along with any other factors that might affect the ability of the experimenter to make
the measurement. For example, if you are trying to use a meter stick to measure the diameter of a
tennis ball, the uncertainty might be ± 5 mm, but if you used a Vernier caliper, the uncertainty
could be reduced to maybe ± 2 mm.

The experimenter is the one who can best evaluate and quantify the uncertainty of a measurement
based on all the possible factors that affect the result. Therefore, the person making the
measurement has the obligation to make the best judgment possible and report the uncertainty in
a way that clearly explains what the uncertainty represents:
Measurement = (measured value ± standard uncertainty) unit of measurement
Where the ± standard uncertainty indicates approximately a 68% confidence interval.
For example: Diameter of tennis ball = 6.7 ± 0.2 cm.
Estimating Uncertainty in Repeated Measurements
Suppose you time the period of oscillation of a pendulum using a digital instrument (that you
assume is measuring accurately) and find: T = 0.44 seconds. This single measurement of the period
suggests a precision of ±0.005 s, but this instrument precision may not give a complete sense of
the uncertainty. If you repeat the measurement several times and examine the variation among the
measured values, you can get a better idea of the uncertainty in the period. For example, here are
the results of 5 measurements, in seconds: 0.46, 0.44, 0.45, 0.44, 0.41.
x1 +x1 +⋯+ xN
Average(mean) =
N

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For this situation, the best estimate of the period is the average, or mean.
Whenever possible, repeat a measurement several times and average the results. This average is
generally the best estimate of the "true" value. Generally, the more repetitions you make of a
measurement, the better this estimate will be, but be careful to avoid wasting time taking more
measurements than is necessary for the precision required.
For Example: Consider, as another example, the measurement of the width of a piece of paper
using a meter stick. Being careful to keep the meter stick parallel to the edge of the paper (to avoid
a systematic error which would cause the measured value to be consistently higher than the correct
value), the width of the paper is measured at a number of points on the sheet, and the values
obtained are entered in a data table. Note that the last digit is only a rough estimate, since it is
difficult to read a meter stick to the nearest tenth of a millimeter (0.01 cm).

Observation Width (in cm)

1. 31.33
2. 31.15
3. 31.26
4. 31.02
5. 31.20
sum of observed widths 155.96 cm
Average = = = 31.19 cm
number of observstions 5
This average is the best available estimate of the width of the piece of paper, but it is certainly not
exact. We would have to average an infinite number of measurements to approach the true mean
value, and even then, we are not guaranteed that the mean value is accurate because there is still
some systematic error from the measuring tool, which can never be calibrated perfectly. So how
do we express the uncertainty in our average value? One way to express the variation among the
measurements is to use the average deviation. This statistic tells us on average (with 50%
confidence) how much the individual measurements vary from the mean.
|𝑥1−𝑥 | + |𝑥2−𝑥 | + ⋯ + |𝑥𝑁−𝑥 |
Average =
N
However, the standard deviation is the most common way to characterize the spread of a data
set. The standard deviation is always slightly greater than the average deviation, and is used
because of its association with the normal distribution that is frequently encountered in statistical
analyses.

Standard Deviation
To calculate the standard deviation for a sample of N measurements:
1. Sum all the measurements and divide by N to get the average, or mean.
2. Now, subtract this average from each of the N measurements to obtain N "deviations".
3. Square each of these N deviations and add them all up.
4. Divide this result by (N − 1) and take the square root.

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We can write out the formula for the standard deviation as follows. Let the N measurements be:
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ..., 𝑥𝑁 and the average of the N values be: 𝑥 .
Then each deviation is given by δxi = xj − xi , for i = 1, 2, …., N. The Standard Deviation is:

(δx12 + δx22 + ⋯ + δxN

2
)
s=√ = √∑ δxi2
(N − 1) (N−1)

In our previous example, the average width 𝑥 is 31.19 cm. The deviation are:
Observation Width (in cm) Deviation- xi -Mean (in cm)
1. 31.33 +0.14 = 31.33 – 31.19
2. 31.15 -0.04 = 31.15 – 31.19
3. 31.26 +0.07 = 31.26 – 31.19
4. 31.02 -0.17 = 31.02 – 31.19
5. 31.20 +0.01 = 31.20 – 31.19

The average deviation is: d = 0.086 cm

(0.14)2 +(0.04)2 +(0.07)2 +(0.17)2 +(0.01)2
The standard deviation is: s = √ = 0.12 cm
(5−1)
The significance of the standard deviation is this: if you now make one more measurement using
the same meter stick, you can reasonably expect (with about 68% confidence) that the new
measurement will be within 0.12 cm of the estimated average of 31.19 cm. In fact, it is reasonable
to use the standard deviation as the uncertainty associated with this single new measurement.
However, the uncertainty of the average value is the standard deviation of the mean, which is
always less than the standard deviation (see next section). Consider an example where 100
measurements of a quantity were made. The average or mean value was 10.5 and the standard
deviation was s = 1.83.

Significant Figures
The significant figures of a given number are those significant or important digits, which convey
the meaning according to its accuracy. For example, 6.658 has four significant digits. These
substantial figures provide precision to the numbers. They are also termed as significant digits.
Rules for Significant Figures are as follows:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. 198745 contains six significant digits.
2. All zeros that occur between any two non-zero digits are significant. For example,
108.0097 contains seven significant digits.
3. All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point and also to the left of a non-zero digit is
never significant. For example, 0.00798 contained three significant digits.
4. All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point are significant, only if, a non-zero digit
does not follow them. For example, 20.00 contains four significant digits.
5. All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit, after the decimal point, are
significant. For example, 0.0079800 contains five significant digits.

22
 6. All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit are significant if they come from
a measurement. For example, 1090 m contains four significant digits.
Rounding Significant Figures
A number is rounded off to the required number of significant digits by leaving one or more digits
from the right. There are two rules to round off the significant numbers:
1. First, we have to check, up to which digit the rounding off should be performed. If the
number after the rounding off digit is less than 5, then we have to exclude all the numbers
present on the right side.
2. But if the digit next to the rounding off digit is greater than 5, then we have to add 1 to the
rounding off digit and exclude the other numbers on the right side.
Example1: What is the result and significant figure after adding the following numbers?
6.6 (2 𝑠. 𝑓. )
𝑥
7328.7 (5 𝑠. 𝑓. ) = 48 × 103 (2 𝑠. 𝑓. & 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)
48369.42
(7 𝑠. 𝑓. )
For addition and subtraction, the result should be rounded off to the last decimal place reported for
the least precise number.

Examples2: What is the result and significant figure after adding the following numbers?
223.64 5560.5
+ +
54 0.008
278 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠. 𝑓. ) 5560.5 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑜 5 𝑠. 𝑓. & 1 𝑑. 𝑝. )

If a calculated number is to be used in further calculations, it is good practice to keep one extra
digit to reduce rounding errors that may accumulate. Then the final answer should be rounded
according to the above guidelines.

Example3: Write 12.378162 correct to 4 significant digits?

Solution:
The number 12.378162, rounded to 4 significant digits is 12.38

Note that: An experimental value should be rounded to be consistent with the magnitude of its
uncertainty. This generally means that the last significant figure in any reported value should be in
the same decimal place as the uncertainty.

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